WWI Trench Warfare: Weapons, Conditions, and Major Battles

Introduction to WWI Trench Warfare

Trench warfare reached its height during World War I, and the trenches were horrific for the soldiers who had to fight in them. Soldiers had to live in these hellholes as well as fight in them, and living conditions were tremendously miserable. Initially, trench warfare was not the order of the day when World War I began. At the outset of the war, both sides deployed mounted cavalry units on horseback, but weapons like the machine gun rendered these outmoded tactics ineffectual and impractical.

The Germans dug the first trenches of the war in 1914 on the Western Front, forcing the Allied American and British forces to dig in as well. These were the first trenches of World War I, and the practice of digging in to repel attacks would continue until the war ended in 1918. It is important to note that the trenches were not straight; they were dug in a zigzag pattern so that attackers could not assault the entire trench from the side. As a result, soldiers inside the trenches could only see about 30 feet in either direction.

Weapons of World War I

World War I was supposed to be the "war to end all wars." Advancing technology gave soldiers weapons never seen before — from machine guns, tanks, and airplanes to artillery pieces and chemical weaponry. All of these weapons demanded new and different fighting techniques, some of which had not been anticipated in previous wars. In the early stages of the war, before the United States became involved, many of the weapons were French-made. These included a rapid-firing French 75mm gun and a 155mm Schneider howitzer. As one historian notes, "While the 75 was a very light piece with limited power, the 155mm Schneider had no trouble destroying enemy trenches with its 130 lb shell" (Grotelueschen 10).

Soldiers in the trenches used regulation rifles and bayonets, while artillery supported and defended their positions. Grotelueschen further explains: "American infantry battalions were to be supported by machine guns, light mortars, and 37mm cannons, [...] German stormtroopers based their attacks on the coordinated use of the most powerful infantry weapons available, primarily light machine guns, but also flamethrowers and grenade launchers" (Grotelueschen 79). Flamethrowers were among the most devastating weapons in the war, and machine guns — though primitive by modern standards — functioned as weapons of mass destruction in this land-based conflict.

The Maxim machine gun had enormous firepower. As one historian writes, "The Maxim Gun could fire 400–600 rounds of small-calibre ammunition per minute. Each gun had the firepower of about 100 rifles" (Simkin). Several other types of machine guns were used by both sides throughout the war.

In the air, World War I was the first war to make significant use of aerial combat. Planes quickly developed into fighters and bombers and became a major weapon by the war's end. They were fast, could deliver bombs more effectively than slow-moving balloons or dirigibles, and could support ground troops by attacking advancing enemies and spotting positions. Tanks also made their appearance during World War I. The first tanks were based on tractor designs and developed in the late 19th century. Two British inventors created what would become the modern tank in 1915; it was called the Killen-Strait Armoured Tractor. It was slow, heavy, and could carry only three people, but it was very effective at clearing fences, covering open ground, and maneuvering over rough terrain. Eventually, tanks would become faster, lighter, larger, and more effective, but the first tanks helped defend the Allies and made a tangible difference in the war (Simkin).

Chemical warfare produced some of the most devastating weaponry of the war, and once its effects were understood, international treaties banning chemical weapons were established. Poison gas was actually first used by the French against the Germans in 1914, but the Germans took it much further, developing several types of poisonous gases, including chlorine and mustard gas. One historian notes, "The effects of chlorine gas were severe. Within seconds of inhaling its vapour it destroyed the victim's respiratory organs, bringing on choking attacks" (Duffy). In response to British development of chlorine gas, the Germans developed mustard gas, which was even deadlier. As Duffy explains, "Mustard gas, an almost odourless chemical, was distinguished by the serious blisters it caused both internally and externally, brought on several hours after exposure. Protection against mustard gas proved more difficult than against either chlorine or phosgene gas" (Duffy).

The Germans used more gas than any other country — at least 68,000 tons — while the French used approximately 36,000 tons and the British approximately 25,000. It is estimated that nearly 90,000 casualties of the war were due to gas attacks (Duffy). Other weapons used during the war included pistols carried by officers, trench mortars designed to fire straight down into enemy trenches, grenades, and flamethrowers used heavily by the Germans.

World War I marked the development of many of the world's most devastating weapons, and they would change the conduct of warfare permanently. They would also become far more refined and effective by the time World War II began — tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, and aircraft all evolved dramatically, becoming much more streamlined and lethal.

Life in the trenches was utterly miserable. As historian Simkin notes, "Most of this area was rarely a few feet above sea level. As soon as soldiers began to dig down they would invariably find water two or three feet below the surface. Along the whole line, trench life involved a never-ending struggle against water and mud" (Simkin). This was only made worse by rain, which turned the trenches into muddy bogs that were nearly uninhabitable. When possible, many soldiers slept outside the trenches simply because conditions inside were so terrible.

Life in the Trenches

Trench warfare was immensely debilitating to the men who endured it, and Allied commanders were well aware of this. Historian Grotelueschen writes, "Pershing became convinced that the long periods of trench fighting not only were extremely costly in men and material, but that they also had a terrible 'resultant psychological effect' on Allied troops" (Grotelueschen 14). The trenches were terrible to live in not only because of the constant water and threat of attack, but also because many soldiers who died there were buried under shallow layers of the trench floor. As Simkin notes, "Many men killed in the trenches were buried almost where they fell. If a trench subsided, or new trenches or dugouts were needed, large numbers of decomposing bodies would be found just below the surface" (Simkin). The trenches thus became mass graves as battles rearranged the landscape.

Soldiers were outfitted with about 30 pounds of gear when they went into battle. They carried "a rifle, two mills grenades, 220 rounds of ammunition, a steel helmet, wire cutters, field dressing, entrenching tool, greatcoat, two sandbags, rolled ground sheet, water bottle, haversack, mess tin, towel, shaving kit, extra socks, message book and preserved food rations" (Simkin). All of this gear made crossing the open stretches of the battlefield known as "no man's land" extraordinarily difficult — and, of course, everything became soaked in the wet conditions of the trenches.

The constant barrage of enemy artillery shells never let up. Unable to escape the noise and ever-present threat of death, many men developed "shell-shock." Early symptoms included irritability, fatigue, dizziness, lack of concentration, and headaches; if the condition was left untreated, it could lead to a total mental breakdown and removal from the battlefield. Shell-shock was especially dangerous because it was difficult to recognize in its early stages. After the war ended, the British Army estimated that about two percent of its soldiers had suffered from the condition — and that figure did not include members of other armies who were similarly affected (Simkin).

Life in the trenches was also extraordinarily monotonous. As one author observes, "in trench warfare a small number of skills were used over and over, almost always with plenty of time to prepare, and with very specific guidance from commanders" (Grotelueschen 19). This meant that periods of boredom and lethargy alternated with sudden, intense combat. For many soldiers, the inside of a trench was the last thing they would ever see. One study found that one-third of all casualties on the Western Front were killed or wounded while in the trenches (Simkin).

Many men recorded their memories of trench life. One historian quotes a soldier's account: "'Primeval forms' are in among you, and No. 2 Post is reduced to a shambles, scuppered by the German raiding party, armed with Bowie knives, lead-weighted coshes, and Walther pistols. In a matter of minutes it is over. The raiding party is already melting into the darkness of no man's land" (Bell). C.S. Lewis recalled, "Through the winter, weariness and water were our chief enemies... One walked in the trenches in thigh gumboots with water above the knee, and one remembers the icy stream welling up inside the boot when you punctured it on concealed barbed wire" (Simkin).

Life in the trenches was so terrible that some soldiers deliberately wounded themselves in order to be removed from the front lines. These self-inflicted wounds (SIW) were punishable by court-martial and could carry the death penalty, though no soldiers were actually executed for the offense; many did, however, serve prison time (Simkin).

Conclusion

So many men were killed in the fighting that there are still only estimates of how many soldiers actually died during World War I, but some estimates put the figure as high as 12 million. That is an extraordinary number, and many of them died in the trenches. Trench warfare has all but disappeared from modern warfare, and understanding what went on in those trenches makes that seem like a very welcome development.