Criminology Theory: Why Deadly Force Can e a Crime
The use of deadly force on the part of police officers has been highlighted in recent news reports. Given less attention are the police officers who could have used deadly force but managed the situation without doing so. Specifically reported in the work of Pinzzotto, Davis, ohrer, and Infanti (2012) is that "a large number of officers have been in multiple situations in which they could have used deadly force, but resolved the incident without doing so and while avoiding serious injury." (p.1)

Examination of the Use of Deadly Force

Alpert and Smith (1994) report that the United States Civil Rights Commission in the 1980s reviewed police use of force and stated as follows:

"Police officers possess awesome powers. They perform their duties under hazardous conditions and with the vigilant public eye upon them. Police officers are permitted only a margin of error in judgment…...

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Bibliography

Klinger, D. (2005) Social Theory, and the Street Cop: The Case of Deadly Force. Ideas in American Policing. Police Foundation. NO. 7 June 2005. Retrieved from: http://pftest1.drupalgardens.com/sites/pftest1.drupalgardens.com/files/Ideas-Klinger_0.pdf

Alpert, GP and Smith, WC (1994) How Reasonable is the Reasonable Man?: Police and Excessive Force. 1 Jan. University of South Carolina Scholar Commons. Criminology and Criminal Justice. Retrieved from:  http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=crim_facpub 

Pinizzotto, AJ, Davis, EF, Bohrer, SB, and Infanti, BJ (2012) Restraint in the Use of Deadly Force. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved from:  http://www.fbi.gov /stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/june-2012/restraint-in-the-use-of-deadly-force

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Although the incidence of deadly force use has likely remained steady in the first five categories, ussell and Beigel emphasize that based on the increased attention being directed at the "stake-out and drugs" category, these rates are likely much higher today. What quickly emerges from these foregoing trends, though, is just how quickly even innocuous encounters such as stops for traffic offenses with ordinary citizens can escalate to the point where deadly force is required by police officers. It is reasonable to suggest that when citizens are directly involved in a violent encounter with a criminal, their views of deadly force will be vastly different from those citizens who merely read about the event in their newspapers or watch a brief account on television. People whose lives or whose families' lives are personally touched and saved by the intervention of police and their use of deadly force against criminals…...

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References

Alpert, G.P. & Smith, W.C. (1999). How reasonable is the reasonable man? Police and excessive force. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 85(2), 481-501.

Black's law dictionary. (1990). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.

Hall, J.C. (1999, February). Due process and deadly force: When police conduct shocks the conscience. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 68(2), 27-28.

Klinger, D. (2004). Into the kill zone: A cop's eye view of deadly force. San Francisco:

Deadly Force by Police
Top Ten ays to Reduce the Use of Deadly Force by Law Enforcement Officers

hile the media tends to portray law enforcement's use of lethal force as excessive and widespread, the empirical data shows a very different picture. According to research by the FBI, officers exercised restraint "…in deadly force in 93% of the situations where they legally could have fired their weapons" (Pinizzotto, et al., 2012). Still, progress can be made to reduce the use of lethal force by police officers. This paper offers ten ways to decrease police officers' use of deadly force -- or at least, provide the skills and training to help the office cope with danger.

Today many officers wear bullet-proof vests, but in the future engineers will be able to design bullet-proof clothing, including head gear and face masks that totally protect the officer from being harmed by a suspect's gunfire. Hence,…...

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Works Cited

Frazier, Thomas C. "Police Use of Excessive Force: A Conciliation Handbook for the Police and The Community." Community Relations Service / U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved February 11, 2013, from   2002.http://justice.gov/archive/crs/pubs/pdexcess.pdf .

Pinizzotto, Anthony J. Davis, Edward F. Bohrer, Shannon B., and Infanti, Benjamin J. "Restraint

In the Use of Deadly Force." FBI. Retrieved February 11, 2013, from  http://www.fbi.gov .

2012.

Law Enforcement
The use of deadly force by the officer raises issues of reasonableness and due process under the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments, respectively, as discussed by the U.S. Supreme Court in Tennessee v. Garner (1985, 471). The use of deadly force is a seizure and thus protected by the Fourth Amendment. Its use during policing activities must therefore be balanced against the rights of the suspect, by remaining within what would be considered a 'reasonable' use of force. Garner involved a Tennessee statute that authorized all available means to prevent the escape of a suspect, which resulted in an officer shooting and killing a 15-year-old boy who had stolen a purse and 10 dollars from a home. The officer could see that the boy had nothing in his hands and was therefore probably unarmed. After telling the boy to halt, the officer shot and killed him when he attempted…...

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Works Cited

Brendlin v. California. 2007. (06-8120) 551 U.S. ____. Print.

Illinois v. Caballes. 2005. 543 U.S. 405. Print.

Johnson v. United States. 1948. 333 U.S. 10, 13. Print.

Knowles v. Iowa. 1998. 525 U.S. 113. Print.

Discovery: In what ways would discovery alter an investigator's methods of investigating?

Discovery that can be submitted into the law must be commensurate with discovery laws regarding dispositions, spontaneous admissions, and investigative questioning. hen collecting data, the investigator must be careful not to leave him or herself open to charges of tainting witness testimony, and must share all potentially relevant testimony with opposing counsel.

Are there any exceptions to this rule?

In the People vs. Lopez, the accused-appellant questioned the credibility of Mario Seldera, contending that the witness could not observed even minute details, such as the length and color of the shirts worn by accused-appellant and his companion, the color of their slippers, and the type of firearm used by accused-appellant, considering that the shooting took place suddenly," and in the dark. Likewise, it was alleged that Lopez's alibi was airtight. However, the court found sufficient evidence that there was enough light,…...

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Works Cited

People v. Lopez. (1999) Retrieved 9 Dec 2004. http://www.supremecourt.gov.ph/jurisprudence/1999/aug99/119380.htm

Smith, Brad. (2004) "Graham vs Connor: Police Service Dogs not deadly force." Retrieved 9 Dec 2004 at http://www.geocities.com/jetflair/smithnotdeadly.html

Tennessee vs Garner (1985) Retrieved 9 Dec 2004.  http://www.uni-konstanz.de/FuF/Jura/fritzemeyer/english/Tennessee.v.Garner.Abridged.pdf

One of the authors in the review, in fact details a reporting system that effectively makes the use of force scene an investigated crime scene, where forensic and other evidence, physical and testimonial, is collected to develop a clear understanding of the events as they unfolded. (2005) Some would argue that this sort of method smacks of the police policing the police, and yet the OSCE Guidebook and many experts would argue that this sort of transparency is necessary for public trust and the insurance of reduced opportunity for corruption at every level. (2006) This emphasis on transparency is relatively new to policing, but in my opinion is demonstrative of positive social change and the eventual development of a much clearer sense on the part of the police, their governing agencies and the public of the nature and definitions of justifiable.
Suspect Coercion by Force or Threat of Force:

Klokar's article…...

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Works Cited

Buker, H. (2005) Book Reviews, International Journal of Police Science and Management 7: 3 pp. 208-312

Carty, K. (2006) "Guidebook of Democratic Policing Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe" Vienna

Council of Europe Committee of Ministers (COECM) "Recommendation Rec (2001)10 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the European Code of Police Ethics" 19 September 2001, Retrieved, November 15, 2007, at  http://www.legislationline.org/legislation.php?tid=155&lid=4886 

Evans, M.D., & Morgan, R. (1998). Preventing Torture: A Study of the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Though women constitute only 12.7% of the sworn police force they are implicated in only 5% of the total cases registered against the use of excessive force. Statistics further indicate that women officers account for only 6% of the total dollars paid out for court settlements for The Use of Police Force 4
police abuse related cases. [DR. Kim Lonsway, 2002] It is clear that a women police officer is less likely to resort to excessive force use compared with a male police officer and this presents a clear case for more representation of women in the police force. Inducting more women would therefore be a positive step.

Another study by the University of California compared the effects of race, gender, and experience of the officer and the link to the possibility of the officer being investigated by Internal affairs for the use of excessive force. For the study, the researchers…...

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Bibliography

1) Amnesty International, (2008) ' Less than Lethal'? The use of Stun weapons in U.S. Law Enforcement', Accessed 14th July 2009, Available at,  http://www.amnestyusa.org/uploads/LessThanLethal.pdf 

2) Anthony J. Micucci & Ian M. Gomme (Oct 2005), 'American Police and Subcultural Support for the use of Excessive Force', Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol 33, Issue 5

3) BJS, (June 25, 2006) 'Citizens Complained more than 26,000 times in 2002 about Excessive Police Force', Available at,  http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/press/ccpufpr.htm 

4) DR. Kim Lonsway, Michelle Wood & Megan Fickling et.al (2002), ' Men, Women and Police Excessive Force: A Tale of two Genders', Accessed July 13th 2009, Available at,  http://www.womenandpolicing.org/PDF/2002_Excessive_Force.pdf

police management affect the way police officers use force?
The Force Continuum

Style of Leadership and Management

Proper Management of Police esources

Innovations in Excessive Force Training

Protection of its citizens is the fundamental mission of any government. And on the forefront of this mission are the law enforcement officers who are in fact the most visible arm that the government utilizes to protect the citizens and also to preserve public order ("Police Use of Excessive Force: A Case Study of Lethal (Deadly) Force," 2016).

And to achieve these missions, the police are given authorities that are unique in civil governments as well as granted by the society - authority to control the behaviors of the citizens with the ultimate aim of protecting them from harm. Hence in a manner that is most direct, the behavior of the members of the society are controlled and managed by the police personnel and the officers on a…...

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References

Atherley, L., & Hickman, M. (2014). Controlling Use of Force: Identifying Police Use of Excessive Force through Analysis of Administrative Records. Policing, 8(2), 123-134.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pau003 

Banker, R., Chang, H., & Pizzini, M. (2004). The Balanced Scorecard: Judgmental Effects of Performance Measures Linked to Strategy. The Accounting Review, 79(1), 1-23.  http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/accr.2004.79.1.1 

Bass, B., & Avolio, B. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA [etc.]: Sage Publications.

Belasen, A., Eisenberg, B., & Huppertz, J. Mastering leadership.

Excessive Force Liability
The International Association for the Chiefs of Police (IACP) has maintained an updated model policy on the use of force for over two decades (Hough & Tatum, 2012). A number of 'use of force' policies implemented by policing agencies can be found online, but the basic tenets are the following: (1) use only the minimum amount of force necessary to bring a situation under control, (2) deadly force should only be used to prevent death or serious injury to the officer or bystanders (Tennessee v. Garner, 1985), and (3) the determination of an imminent threat of death or serious injury should be based on objective and reasonable evidence (IACP, 2006; Graham v. Conner, 1989). Officers should also warn the intended target that deadly force will be used if they failed to comply when possible (Tennessee v. Garner, 1985).

Based on these guidelines, Officer Jones was not justified in discharging…...

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Reference

Baldwin, L. (2014). Aggravated battery laws and penalties. Retrieved from  http://www.criminaldefenselawyer.com/crime-penalties/federal/Aggravated-Battery.htm .

Estate of Davis v. City of Richland Hills, No. 04-10036, 406 F.3d 375 (5th Cir. 2005).

Graham v. Conner, No. 87-6571, 490 U.S. 386 (1989).

Hough, R.M. Sr. & Tatum, K.M. (2012). An examination of Florida policies on force continuums. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 35(1), 39-54.

War has undoubtedly shaped the course of human history. Conflicts, through sheer human nature often arise through disagreement. Occasionally these conflicts end with war as opposing sides believe so vehemently in their respective reasonings and doctrinal views. Oftentimes, these war's end with one "victor" and on defeated party, however, in war everyone losses.
The Vietnam War in particular is an example of how war is a zero sum game that only results in losses for all those involved. This paper examines how the conflict started, taking particular care to express both points-of-view regarding core issues followed by a discussion concerning Special Forces operations and their overall impact on the outcome of the war. Finally, a summary of the research and important findings about Special Forces in Vietnam in the conclusion.

Review and Analysis

Origins of the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was a long, costly armed conflict that pitted the communist regime of North…...

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Dyhouse, Tim. (2002, March). Delta Force: Secret Wielders of Death. VFW Magazine 89(7), p. 16.

Beckwith, Charles (with Donald Knox) (1983). Delta Force. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 9780151246571.

Kelly, Francis J. Green Berets of Vietnam - The U.S. Army Special Forces 61-71 - the. S.l: Archive Media Publishing, 2013.

Terrorism
Tragedies from deadly terrorist attacks have made the international communities to pervasively fear and loath terrorism. Terrorism is undertaken by individual with motivations that are complex for the understanding of security agencies and individuals. Definition according United States statutes states terrorism to be politically motivated, premeditated, violence against noncombatant individuals, private property by clandestine agents or subnational groups, with an intention to obtain audience (Launtenberg, 2011). This definition is adopted for purposes of this paper.

Attempts to shed some light on terrorism highlight the motives of the perpetrators while they give some appropriate measures to resolve the problem. The organizations linked to supporting terrorism by State Department stood at 22 in the year 2001. In three years' time, the list of identified terrorist groups had grown to 36 with more groups being listed as unofficial terrorist organizations. One might mistake terrorism industry for a thriving economic entity or the definitions…...

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References

Launtenberg, F. (2011). Homeland Security and Fighting Terrorism. Retrieved 19th October 2013, from http://lautenberg.senate.gov/issues_update/homesec_terror.cfm

McCarthy, Timothy, P., & McMillian, J. (2008). The Radical Reader: A Documentary History of the American Radical Tradition. (Vol. New Press): New York.

Morag, N. (2004). The Economic and Social Effects of Intensive Terrorism: Israel 2000 -- 2004. Retrieved 19th October, 2013, from  http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2006/issue3/jv10no3a9.html 

Ridgeway, J. (1990). Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture. New York: Thunder's Mouth,.

Victims of a Meaningless Show of Force
Language Analysis:

In the article "Victims of a Meaningless Show of Force" the author uses language to express her point that police firing on two polar bears was unacceptable behavior and as the author says "it was illogical, unfair, and a meaningless show of force." While this statement makes her opinion clear, the author also uses language to create the same opinion in the reader.

The title of the article is a clear example of loaded language. The word 'victims' implies that the polar bears were helpless, while the words 'meaningless show of force' imply that the police officers were only acting to prove something, with no real purpose to their actions.

Before offering an opinion on the shooting, the author describes the shooting. This includes the statement "the four police officers emptied twenty blasts from a 12-gauge shotgun and a.38 caliber revolver into the animals, killing…...

Faustus, as Christopher Marlowe's character, is a German scholar who wants to exceed the limits of traditional logic, medicine, law and religion by practicing black magic. Through this, he calls upon Mephistopheles, a demon, who arranges a deal between Faustus and Lucifer for 24 years of power and glory in exchange for his soul. Despite Mephistopheles' warnings about the horrors of hell and his own doubts about what the deal really means, Faustus persists in the decision to enter into the bargain, which he signs in his own blood. ich gifts and displays of pleasure from Mephistopheles and Lucifer, though, distract his doubts and lull his senses and reason, in addition to Mephistopheles' impressive information about the nature of the universe. The parade of the seven deadly sins particularly wins Faustus' mind and will. In the fulfillment of their end of the bargain, Mephistopheles takes Faustus to ome, the…...

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References

Dyce, Alexander, editor. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe. The Quarto of 1616: Blackmask Online, 2001. http://www.blackmask.com/books15c/drfstadex.htm

Finnan, Dennis L. Seven Deadly Sins. The World, the Word and You! Broadcast, 1998. http://www.wwy.org/wwy3398.html

Goldfarb, Russell and Clarke, The Seven Deadly Sins in Doctor Faustus. http://www.industrialdisturbance.com/marlowe/explorer/seven.html

Marlowe, Christopher. The Tragedy of Doctor Faustus. Etext # 811, February 1997.  http://sailor.gutenbeg.org/etext97/drfsta10.txt

On the other hand, it is possible that such scenarios are extreme, and are based on the same time of 'slippery slope' logic that causes people to wonder if legalizing gay marriages will lead to people marrying animals. Extremism on either side of an issue is never a good thing, nor is the fabrication of doomsday scenarios that are based on nothing but speculation. Sarah Palin should know that better than anybody with her 'death panel' stories.

So while extreme caution regarding where all of these pro-gun, pro-self-defense laws may be overstated, at the same time, we cannot afford to simply look away and hope that the trend ends here. s the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence (2009) points out, these laws are not only dangerous but are in many ways, legally and ethically unjust:

Leaving aside the public safety issues associated with encouraging untrained civilians to confront criminals with deadly force,…...

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Appendix B

Note: Red states have Castle Doctrines

Source:  http://tekel.wordpress.com/2009/01/24/castle-doctrine-map-update-for-january-2009/

The right to use force in self-defense an important civil liberty and right, ensconced in the Second Amendment of the Constitution. Because of Second Amendment assurances, all Americans technically have the right to bear arms in self-defense. Some states have attempted to restrict Second Amendment rights, but the vast majority of states have implemented “some statutory version” of the Castle Doctrine (“What is the Castle Doctrine,” n.d.). In fact, some states like Florida have taken the Castle Doctrine a step further to invoke what are commonly called “stand your ground laws.” Whereas the Castle Doctrine only applies to a person’s “castle,” or home and private property, stand your ground laws can be invoked in any situation requiring self-defense. There is no real reason, evidence-based or otherwise, why Americans who are protected by the provisions of the Constitution should not be able to defend themselves if and when faced with a…...