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Cooper, Bryer, and Meek reviewed the literature on citizen participation by synthesizing historical research to recent research and confirm the definition of citizen participation, defined by Macedo et al. As "any activity, individual or collective, devoted to influencing the collective life of the policy"(p. 76). Cooper et al. also affirm Cooper's (2005) argument of citizen participation:"People participating together for deliberation and collective action within an array of interests, institutions and networks, developing civic identity, and involving people in governance processes"(Cooper, 2005, as cited in Cooper et al., 2006, p. 76). Following a historical review of citizen participation in the United States, these authors offer a conceptual model of five approaches to civic engagement, with citizen-centered collaborative public management at the center. In order to accomplish a well-functioning citizen-centered collaborative public management, the authors suggest six variables need to be maximized: (a) government trust in citizens, (b) citizen efficacy, (c) citizen trust in government, (d) citizen competence, (e) government responsiveness, and (f) government legitimacy. Citizen-centered collaborative public management is enhanced through the following five approaches even though some barriers and five dimensions may influence the degree of success of each approach: the size, scope, purpose, location, and process employed to engage citizens. Cooper et al.(2006) call for "further empirical research on collaborative public management that is grounded in citizenship action"(p. 76). [35: Cooper, T., Bryer, T., & Meek, J. (2006). Citizen-centered collaborative public management. Public Administration Review, 66(s1), 76-88.] [36: Macedo, S., Alex-Assensoh, Y., Berry, J.M., Brintnall, M., Campbell, D.E., Fraga, L.R., . . . Walsh, K.C. (2005). Democracy at risk: How political choices undermine citizen participation and what we can do about it. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.]
Rosener simply makes the case that it is uncertain that citizen participation is "effective" because most research on the question takes the form of case studies. These case studies generally list definitions and techniques and schemes for implementing participation programs that failed to provide accurate, scientific data on how "effective" citizen participation was to the "goal"(p. 457). Rosener contends that evaluation research methodology can frame instances of citizen participation into something that will generate scientific evidence and allow researchers to understand the effects of citizen participation. [37: Rosener, J.B. (1975). A cafeteria of techniques and critiques. Public Management,57(12), 16-19.]
Rosener further explains how evaluation research can illuminate the effectiveness of citizen participation. Evaluation research is "nothing more than the application of certain kinds of research methods to the evaluation of social programs"(p. 459). It compares the effects of a program to its goals in order to assist further decision making about the program in question. Research in citizen participation requires that first who, where, what, how, and when be answered. Additionally, the cause and effect relationship between participation and the achievement of its goals must be studied. [38: Rosener, J.B. (1975). A cafeteria of techniques and critiques.
