HATE CIMES Hate Crimes: The Need to Apportion Greater Emphasis on the Criminal MotiveFrom the onset, it would be prudent to note that there is no universal definition for hate crimes. This essentially means that in the past, various definitions have been floated by multiple authors in an attempt to assign meaning to hate crimes. In this text, the definition that the Hate Crime Statistics Act establishes will be embraced. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics BJS (2021), hate crime has been defined by this particular Act as crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, gender or gender identity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. This is to say that on this front, it is what the victim is (or is perceived to be) that prompts, inspires, or motivates hate crime. Hate crime could take a wide range of forms including, but not limited to, humiliation,…...

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ReferencesBureau of Justice Statistics – BJS (2021). Bias-Motivated/Hate Crime.   of Justice – DOJ (2023). Updated 2021 Hate Crime Statistics: FBI Releases Supplement to the 2021 Hate Crime Statistics.  https://www.justice.gov/crs/highlights/2021-hate-crime-statistics Dalton, D., Lint, W.D. & Palmer, D. (2010). Crime and Justice: A Guide to Criminology. Thomson Reuters. Lieberman, M. (2010). Hate Crime Laws: Punishment to Fit the Crime. ADL.  https://www.adl.org/resources/news/hate-crime-laws-punishment-fit-crime Mellgren, C., Anderson, M. & Ivert, A. (2017). For Whom Does Hate Crime Hurt More? A Comparison of Consequences of Victimization across Motives and Crime Types. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(3-4), 1512-1536. DOI: 10.1177/0886260517746131 Novotney, A. (2023). Hate crimes are on the rise in the U.S. What are the psychological effects? American Psychological Association.  https://www.apa.org/topics/gun-violence-crime/hate-crimes Spakovsky, H.A. & Perry, S.P. (2021). Hate Crimes: Should They Be Prosecuted More Aggressively? The Heritage Foundation.  https://www.heritage.org/crime-and-justice/commentary/hate-crimes-should-they-be-prosecuted-more-aggressively  https://bjs.ojp.gov/topics/crime/hate-crime Department

Analyze who is most at risk for this type of violence or intentional injury.Violence and intentional injury have become a very contentious and polarizing issue within America. In light of the George Floyd murder and other tensions, racial violence has become a very prominent element within the national media. Intentional injury has occurred in numerous instances as a result of racial divides and circumstances. Hates crimes are recorded by the department of justice and have increased in recent years as a result of many of racial divides prevailing in the country today (Balboni, 2001). Figure 1 provides an image of hate crimes throughout the United States and the particular bias that is represented.Figure 1 Hate Crimes in 2020 within the United StatesAs can be gleamed from the above chart, hates crimes involve a variety of individuals and institutions. To answer question 1 above, hate crime can involve any person…...

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References 1. Balboni, Jennifer M., and Jack McDevitt. 2001. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Hate Crime Reporting: Understanding Police Officer Perceptions, Department Protocol, and the Role of the Victim: Is There Such a Thing as a Love Crime?\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" Justice Research and Policy 3(1): 1–27.2. Bell, Jeannine 2009. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Policing and Surveillance.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" In Hate Crimes: Responding to Hate Crime, Volume 5, ed. Barbara Perry and Frederick M. Lawrence. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishing.3. Berlet, Chip. 2001. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Hate Groups, Racial Tension and Ethnoviolence in an Integrating Neighborhood, 1976-1988.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" Research in Political Sociology 9:117–163.4. Blazak, Randy. 2001. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"White Boys to Terrorist Men: Target Recruitment of Nazi Skinheads.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" American Behavioral Scientist 44(6): 982–1000.5. Bouman, Walter. 2003. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Best Practices of a Hate/Bias Crime Investigation.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 72(3): 21–25.

Hate Crimes IntroductionCrime related to have caused a very polarizing and contentious racial issue within the United States. The recent killings of George Floyd and Ahmaud Arberry has highlighted the fragile intersection between racial, crime and apprehension. The George Floyd case in particular highlighted some of the shortcomings of the criminal justice system as it relates to race. Hates crimes over the past few years have been on the rise in the United States, although small on a absolute, basis the year to year increases in crimes has been discouraging to both minorities and the population in general.Pundits often cite the racial rhetoric of then president Donald Trump as a catalyst for the increase in hate crimes. Other site a rapid emergence of nationalism from an economic and political context that often see those from other races as threats. Here, Muslims and Asian Americans bore the brunt of these hate…...

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References 1. Balboni, Jennifer M., and Jack McDevitt. 2001. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Hate Crime Reporting: Understanding Police Officer Perceptions, Department Protocol, and the Role of the Victim: Is There Such a Thing as a Love Crime?\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" Justice Research and Policy 3(1): 1–272. Berlet, Chip. 2001. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\"Hate Groups, Racial Tension and Ethnoviolence in an Integrating Neighborhood, 1976-1988.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" Research in Political Sociology 9:117–1633. Gale, L. R., Heath, W. C., & Ressler, R. W. (2002). An Economic Analysis of Hate Crime. Eastern Economic Journal, 28(2), 203–216. 2http://www.jstor.org/stable/403260974.

Global Communication
Hate Groups, Hate Crimes, and acism in the U.S. today

The problem of hate groups that perpetuate the hate crimes has been a challenge in the U.S. not only in the present times, but has existed from the times of the WWI with groups like the Ku Klux Klan emerged (FBI, 2014). Since the 1980s, there have been several hate groups that have emerged which have perpetuated heinous have crimes that mostly border on the race specific targets, as is the case with skinheads and the likes. As the world changes and the technology takes over the communication and information platforms, the hate crimes have been escalated to the internet with groups having inclination towards racism using the social media and internet to carry on their hate speeches and even organize hate crimes. The ever changing nature of such groups and the adverse effects that such groups forms the basis…...

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References

FBI, (2014). Hate Crimes Add an Element of Bias to Traditional Crimes -- and the Mixture is Toxic to Our Communities. Retrieved February 16, 2015 from  http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/civilrights/hate_crimes

1990, United States government passed the Hate Crimes Statistics Act. This mandated that state, local and federal law enforcement agencies report data on crimes that reflected a bias against a person's race, religion, sexual orientation, and/or ethnicity/national origin. Several years later, people with disabilities were added to this list. Data collection was placed under the auger of the FBI, which complied by publishing an annual report through its Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program. This program started to publish a review of national hate crimes in 1990 entitled Hate Crime Statistics, 1990: A Resource Book. By 1992, the publication reflected the reported data of all states. Because certain states, such as Wisconsin, penalize perpetrators more for the same crime if the motivation for that crime is thought to be categorical hatred, statistics reflect the opinions of law enforcement agencies.
Because of this wealth of new data, in addition to the data…...

Crime and Deviance
Crimes and increasing criminal activities have become a major concern for the security enforcement agencies. They seek help from technology as well as social and psychological theories to prevent crimes and deal with them. The first priority of security agencies is to prevent crimes and the second priority is to control them by punishing the criminals so that they become an example for the society. This paper offers an insight to how the crime prevention activities can be implemented. This includes understanding few biological, psychological and sociological theories pertaining to crimes and criminology. Human being's generally and criminals specifically act under the influence of some physical, environmental, cultural and individual factors that will be discussed in this paper.

Theories of Crime and Deviance

Crimes as well as deviance are behaviors that show violation from the settled and accepted norms of a society. Crime is something that is unethical as…...

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References

Cohen, P 2011, Genetic basis for crime: A new look, viewed 26 November, 2013, Retrieved

 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/arts/genetics-and-crime-at-institute-of-justice-conference.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 

Community Crime Prevention Guide, n. d., viewed 26 November, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.criminaljusticereform.gov.bc.ca/en/what_you_can_do/crime_prevention/ 

Crime Control: A Short Note, n.d., viewed 26 November, 2013, Retrieved from:  http://ncthakur.itgo.com/chand3c.htm

My Views on Hate Crimes Although hate crime is often associated with some sort of violent crime motivated by a desire to hurt a group or person based on that group or person’s identity, Green, McFalls and Smith (2001) admit that hate crime is actually difficult “to define, measure and explain” (p. 479). The reason for the difficulty is that hate, in the obvious sense of a person persecuting another because the other person is different, is not always so explicitly manifested or expressed in the crime. In fact, it could be said that at some level hate is the motive behind all crime—hate for the state, hate for society, hate for the law, hate for one’s neighbor, hate for God, or even hate for one’s self. To make it even more complicated, Chakraborti and Garland (2009) argue that “hate crimes are not crimes in which the offender simply hates the victim, and in reality crimes do…...

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References

Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2009). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses. Sage Publications.

Green, D. P., McFalls, L. H., & Smith, J. K. (2001). Hate crime: An emergent research agenda. Annual review of sociology, 27(1), 479-504.

Spruill, L. (2020). Warren family returns home few months after hate crime incident. Retrieved from  

https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2020/11/27/warren-family-returns-home-few-months-after-hate-crime-incident/ 

Social science researchers can use either qualitative or quantitative strategies to develop informed and timely answers to their research questions, but these two approaches involve analyzing fundamentally different data sets. On the one hand, qualitative researchers can use various methods such as case studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory, narrative and/or content analyses (Neuman, 2009). On the other hand, social science researchers can use quantitative strategies such as observational studies, correlational research, experimental, quasi-experimental and survey designs (Neuman, 2009). While both qualitative and quantitative research questions seek to gain new insights into a given phenomenon, there are also basic differences between the types of data that are used.
By definition, quantitative research involves the analysis of numeric data in some form while qualitative research uses words, graphics and other data to formulate answers to guiding research questions (Neuman, 2009). These differences mean that designing a research question from a qualitative…...

The authors go on to say that America has also forced their extreme versions of free capitalism and true democracy on the rest of the world, including into many places where those concepts really do not work. The American corporations that move into those areas control what food is eaten as well as grown there, and the conglomerates in the media bury most of the native culture of these other places under a strong onslaught full of American entertainment.

The authors, Sardar and Davies, address all of these issues with insight and research. The chapters in which they address culture very strongly, however, become somewhat repetitive and almost whiny on occasion. However, the authors are not saying that everyone has to agree with everything that they say. Even without agreeing with them completely, it is very easy to see that there are good reasons why many people do not like America,…...

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Bibliography

Sardar, Ziauddin & Davies, Merryl Wyn. (2003). Why do people hate America? Icon Books Ltd.; 2 Rev ed.

Hate documentary leads one to believe that the only reason why America is still a vibrant and ongoing society is due to the perseverance and courage of all the immigrants that have come to the United States that have overcome the natural white prejudice and bias against them. According to the documentary, the first American settlers were Anglo Saxon Protestants who immediately began to subjugate the native population and then set about ensuring that the only people who would benefit from the country's resources would be individuals who believed in the same manner as they did, or at least pretended to believe in that same manner. The documentary presented all the groups that have been wronged by the first American settlers and their ancestors, and then determined that America was full of hate. The film showed how the entire American society was based on hate, prejudice and bias against…...

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References

National Organization for Human Services (2015) What is human services? Accessed on April 15, 2015 at  http://www.nationalhumanservices.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=88 

Norris-Tirrell, D.; (2014) The changing role of private, non-profit organizations in the development and delivery of Human Services in the United States, Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 37(3) p. 304-324

Acquainted With the Law
Various Law Terms-3

Insider Trading

This is either legal or illegal (Priebe, 2012). It is legal and legitimate when corporate officers, directors and shareholders of at least 10% of the outstanding stock of the business. They file the required information with the Securities and Exchange Commission at regular periods (Priebe).

Illegal Insider Trading

This is conducted by trusted person but violates that company's trust (Priebe, 2012). The person is usually someone who enjoys fiduciary trust in working for and keeping the best interest of the company or its shareholders. He may be an officer, a director or an outsider who has access to confidential information about the company. That outsider may be the company's banker, auditor, or lawyer. In general, he is an insider who gives or receives inside information or tips (Priebe).

Characteristics of the Inside Information

It must be important and private (Priebe, 2012). It must be essential enough to…...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daniels, R. (2012). First property domain laws. eHow: Demand Media, Inc. Retrieved on June 19, 2012 from http://www.ehow.com/facts_8009319_first-property-domain-laws.html

Menamos, J. (2012). Why are hate crimes difficult to prosecute? eHow: Demand Media,

Inc. Retrieved on June 19, 2012 from http://www.ehow.com/info_8769064_hate-crimes-difficult-prosecute.html

Montoya, D. (2012). How has the exclusionary rule impacted criminal cases? eHow:

hate crimes against African-Americans. In particular I want to address media portrayals of hate crimes against African-Americans and how media interprets this phenomenon and in turn depicts it. As media is responsible for shaping much of public opinion (Baum, Potter 39), it is helpful to understand how the public is impacted by media portrayals of hate crimes against African-Americans through popular news reports, film and television portrayals, books, magazines, music and even scholarly articles. This essay wants to see if different types of media portray hate crimes against African-Americans with more or less sensitivity, with a more or less judgmental approach, with a more or less confrontational/antagonistic tone, and with more or less sympathy and empathy. This may help us to better understand why hate crimes against African-Americans occur.
In order to answer these questions, I will look in particular at films such as Malcolm X by Spike Lee, books…...

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Works Cited

Baum, M., Potter, P. "The relationships between mass media, public opinion, and foreign policy: Toward a theoretical synthesis." Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 11 (2008): 39-65.

Holt, Lanier Frush. "Writing the Wrong: Can Counter-Stereotypes Offset Negative

Media Messages about African-Americans?" Journalism and Mass Communication, vol. 90, no. 1 (2013): 108-125.

Lee, Spike, dir. Malcolm X. LA: Warner Bros., 1992. Film.

The authors do not state that public perceptions of severity should be discounted, but merely that these should not be over-emphasized, as was the case in previous literature.
Another existing mode of measuring crime severity is that of economic models. Economic measures of costs may seem more objective, but given that they also involve speculative losses (such as lost productivity), they are not universally agreed upon. One widely-used model to estimate crime severity is the Bradley-Terry continuum which posits that stealing something less than $5 is less severe than stealing "something worth $5 -- $50, which itself is less severe than trying to steal something worth more than $50. Additionally, stealing or trying to steal a car is ranked more severe than the other theft items. Selling marijuana is also ranked less severe than selling harder drugs such as heroin, cocaine, or LSD" (amchand et al. 2009: 143). The authors…...

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References

Perry, B. (2003). Where do we go from here? Researching hate crimes. Internet Journal of Criminology. Retrieved:  http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Where%20Do%20We%20Go%20From%20Here.%20Researching%20Hate%20Crime.pdf 

Merl, J. (2013). Victims of 1999 hate-crime shooting endorse Mike Feuer. LA Times. Retrieved:

 http://articles.latimes.com/2013/apr/18/local/la-me-ln-feuer-guns-20130418

National Incident-Based Reporting System (IBRS) is a system used by national and state law enforcement agencies to report and analyze crimes. he system allows for the widespread use of data related to a variety of crimes coming to law enforcement agencies. he data collected includes the nature and types of specific offenses in the incident, characteristics of the victim(s) and offender(s), types and value of property stolen and recovered, and characteristics of persons arrested in connection with a crime incident.
he information collected by the IBRS is extensive and the use of the system can be, therefore, complex. Since the system was introduced in 1985 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation the basic system has been adopted by a number of local and state law enforcement agencies as well. Some of these jurisdictions, including the State of New York, have chosen to enhance the system or adapt it to their…...

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The reporting of hate crimes is still in its infancy. Data is only available from 1992 to the present and it is only in the past ten years that wholesale participation has been available. As participation becomes more universal, the results will be more complete and as reporting protocols are improved the results will be more accurate. By their nature, hate crimes involve a high degree of bias and therefore discplined reporting protocols are a necessity.

The IBRS system affords law enforcement agencies with the opportunity to take advantage of the phenonmenal capacity of modern police and data processing systems to accumulate a myriad of details regarding criminal activity and criminals. The sophistication of the system allows investigating officers the ability to record pertinent facts in a systematic method that results in the organizing of data into specific segments. This leads to more accurate and complete analysis and, arguably, this leads to better law enforcement techniques.

The mission of the IBRS system is to enhance the quality, and timeliness of crime data collection and to improve the methodology used in compiling, analyzing, auditing, and publishing of the collected crime statistics. Presently, participation in the use of the IBRS system is not universal and a great deal of the reporting of crime statistics by the FBI and other reporting agencies is still done using summary format. It is the hope that in the near future the IBRS system will be used by all law enforcement agencies throughout the country. It is believed that this will result in better reporting results.

This abuse of Arab-Americans and Muslim-American follows the ritualized sacrifice of the pharmakos, which involved the projection of a specific set of characteristics onto the scapegoated victim, who was then sacrificed in order to restore the health and unity of the community" (p. 165). As Taslitz (2002) emphasizes, such hate crimes and stereotypical portrayals of Arab-Americans represent a firmly entrenched set of beliefs held by many Americans that contribute to the government's ability to increase its power at the expense of the civil rights afforded the ordinary citizenry. "The most serious threats to our freedom often advance in small steps," Taslitz notes, and, "The risks we assume are, in large part, reflections of laws that encourage certain customs and values" (p. 125).
This step-by-step erosion of civil liberties can be best understood as a response to the demonizing of Arabs in America as far back as the late 1800s (Akram,…...

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References

Abu-Laban, B. (2007). Reflections on the rise and decline of an Arab-American organization. Arab Studies Quarterly, 29(3-4), 47.

Akram, S.M. (2002). The aftermath of September 11, 2001: The targeting of Arabs and Muslims in America. Arab Studies Quarterly, 61.

Babbitt, S.E. & Campbell, S. (1999). Racism and philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Chermak, S., Bailey, F.Y., Brown, M. (2003). Media representations of September 11. Westport, CT: Praeger.

## Essay Outline: Social Justice Issues and Trauma-Informed Psychological Support

I. Introduction
Define social justice issues pertinent to trauma victims (e.g., systemic oppression, discrimination, poverty)
State the thesis statement: Social justice issues are crucial considerations for psychologists in providing effective trauma-informed support to victims.

II. Section 1: Impact of Social Justice Issues on Trauma
Explain how systemic oppression, discrimination, and poverty contribute to trauma experiences
Discuss the intersectionality of social justice issues and trauma (e.g., how race, gender, and socioeconomic status impact its manifestation)
Provide examples of specific social justice issues that lead to trauma, such as racial profiling, hate crimes, or....

1. The Role of Revenge in Shaping Criminal Behavior
2. The Ethics of Seeking Revenge in the Criminal Justice System
3. The Psychological Impact of Holding onto Revenge in Criminal Cases
4. Revenge as a Motivating Factor in Criminal Acts
5. Exploring Revenge as a Theme in Literature and Film about Crime
6. Revenge and its Effects on Social Relationships and Community Dynamics
7. The Enduring Appeal of Revenge as a Narrative Device in Crime Stories
8. Revenge as a Form of Justice in the Eyes of the Victimized
9. The Cycle of Violence and Revenge in Criminal Acts
10. The Consequences of Seeking Revenge in Cases of Crime....

1. Social inequality, characterized by unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, perpetuates traumatizing experiences for marginalized communities, fostering cycles of poverty, discrimination, and health disparities.

2. The intersectionality of social inequalities, such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and disability, compounds traumatization, leading to heightened vulnerability and limited access to support systems.

3. Social inequality creates barriers to education, healthcare, and employment, exacerbating psychological distress and hindering individuals from reaching their full potential, resulting in lifelong trauma.

4. The chronic stress and adversity faced by individuals subject to social inequality contribute to mental health problems, substance abuse, and physical ailments, traumatizing their well-being and....

Introduction In the digital age, the internet has become a breeding ground for hate speech, leading to contentious debates over its regulation. Many argue that online hate speech incites violence, discrimination, and social division, necessitating censorship to protect vulnerable groups. Others contend that censorship stifles free speech, limits public discourse, and hinders societal progress. This essay delves into the complex arguments surrounding online hate speech censorship to determine whether it ultimately benefits or harms societies worldwide. Arguments in Favor of Censorship

Proponents of censorship argue that online hate speech poses a clear and present danger to individuals and society as a whole.....