As the center of power weakened in Baghdad, Persian nobles ignored the caliph and established their own kingdoms. Toward the end the Abbasid only had Iraq under their control. In 945 the Buyids invaded Iraq and forced the caliph to recognize their prince, called a sultan, as ruler of Iraq. Another problem started much earlier with the Turks. Turks were used as soldiers and slaves. As Abbasid power began to wane they hired entire armies of Turkish soldiers. In 1055 the Seljuks, a Turkish group took over Baghdad. The Turks pushed all the way to Damascus in 1076. The Seljuks established a feudal economy and one where military service is the means of acquiring land. After the Seljuks defeated the Byzantium Empire in 1071, the Byzantines called on the Pope for help in defeating the Muslims. In 1096 Christian rulers across Europe heeded the Pope's call and went to war called the Crusades. Trade began with Italian city states. The Christians captured Jerusalem in 1099 and established four states. However, by 1291 they recaptured the Holy Land. The final nail in the coffin for the Abbasid Empire was the invasion of the Mongols in 1258. Despite the wars and conflict during this era, it was also a time of academic and artistic innovation and discovery. This time period saw the emergence of great Muslim scholars such as, Rhazes, who wrote a medical encyclopedia and papers on medicine and surgery. Another important scholar was Ibn Sina as known as Avicenna. His publication on medical science was used in European universities for centuries to come. During this time the precursor to chemistry was being discovered, alchemy. In their alchemic experiments, Muslims created a science based on the structure of chemical compounds and made techniques to accurately use them. This explosion of creativity extended to the humanities, the famous literary work the Arabian Nights was written during this period.

4. The Late Middle Period is a time that began with...

In 1258, Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad. However, the Mongolian invasion into Europe and Egypt were both stopped. The Mamluk Empire in stopped the Mongolians from going further into Egypt in 1260.They established a feudal society that was responsible for their economic and military power. This era also saw the rise of Turkish dominance of the Middle East.
The Ottoman Empire started when Osman created his kingdom in Anatolia. His legacy was continued by his successors by expanding into Europe and to Palestine in the 1500s. Selim I defeated the Mamluks and expanded into North Africa. Suleiman the Magnificent continued the Empire's expansion until he was stopped in Vienna. The Ottomans became master builders, efficient bureaucrats, and literary masters. The Ottomans ruled a diverse population of people. They welcomed all ethnic and religious groups as long as the empire benefited. They allowed for any ethnic group to convert to Islam. This helped keep the peace within the Empire.

5. The early modern period of 1500-1800 sees the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the beginnings of modernization. During the period of late 1500s to late 1600s Ottoman economic power was threatened by European efforts. European states set in motion steps to curb Ottoman trade monopoly by creating ships and discovering their own routes to Asia. They suffered a military defeat at the hands of the Spanish at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Ottomans fell behind in military technology this being evident during the Long War against Austria. They failed to implement the new techniques, scientific theories and philosophy, leading to a stagnation of the military.

The biggest problem was the decay and corruption of government. Government and military positions were sold to the highest bidder. This led to a decay of these institutions. This rampant corrupt also eroded what little power sultans had left. It is not until Selim III that…