CCTV the Incursion of Technology

CCTV

The incursion of technology into nearly every aspect of modern life is an accepted part of life in the twenty first century. To that end, technology is a significant tool in the war against crime waged daily by officers of the law. However, the uses and potential abuses of that technology specifically tools such as CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) systems have given rise to entirely new debates regarding the degree to which such potentially advantageous technological advances violate individual civil rights. As White House executives have been quoted saying these technological advances can be sold as either a reassurance or more Big Brother (Delaney, 2009). What must be determined first though, upon weighing both the arguments for and against such technology is whether, benefit or risk aside, its use is a violation of the rights of the citizens such technology would be implemented to protect.

In the arsenal of arguments supporting the use of CCTV are its versatility, omnipresent omniscience, and its life saving potential for officers and civilians alike. Implemented effectively CCTV cameras can patrol continuously giving law enforcement agencies documented irrefutable proof of wrong doing (Nieto, 1997). They can be used in conjunction with a variety of existing technology options and in an increasingly wide range of locations, there is even an option now to have such video camera systems mounted on drone planes (Lewis, 2010). These CCTV systems also to a degree serve as a protection for police officers and citizens alike.

Advancements in video surveillance technology have allowed for significant improvements in preventative and early response action. The CCTV systems currently employed in underground systems though not taking advantage of face recognition software allow officers to monitor suspicious behavior from a safe location (Clifford, 2007). This ability to monitor behavior which may be suspect allows also for more rapid and effectual responses in the instances where there is a genuine threat (Trango, n.d.).

For the 2012 Olympic games British officials are requesting that unmanned aerial vehicles fitted with CCTV cameras and capable of flying at a height of 20,000 feet be used to increase the security presence in London (Lewis, 2010). Though ostensibly employed for the protection of athletes and fans, the question of how invasive such technology can be must be answered. While the benefit such increased security will have on the crime rate at what cost does that benefit come. The CCTV already in place has caused a great deal of dissent in that citizens are effectively under surveillance without their permission or just cause (Delaney, 2009). With technology capable of tracking faces and of being deployed in ways which prevent citizens from being aware that they are being filmed, it has been argued that CCTV is an explicit violation of an individual's right to privacy (Schenkel, 2009).

The arguments against the increased use of CCTV are based largely on the citizen's right to privacy and the huge degree of power police and other government agencies would wield. The ability of law enforcement to use facial recognition software in conjunction with ever larger CCTV surveillance networks would literally mean that individual citizens could be isolated and followed if they displayed even moderately suspicious behavior.

Closed-circuit television: a law enforcement tool:

The use of closed circuit television in law enforcement is a tool which has time and time again demonstrated its usefulness, both in terms of evidence provision for due process, and as a watchful deterrent; whether the focus of the lawful application of CCTV is in catching traffic violations, or behind-the-counter cameras in 7-11's catching armed theft, or a myriad of other applications, having a purely objective, incorruptible 'witness' to a crime has been a boon to law enforcement.

Unfortunately, the pervasiveness of CCTV in modern society and its potentially 'rushed' roll-out has provided grounds for several miscarriages of justice; low resolution cameras such as those in "mom-and-pop" stores can often not provide the jury-desired positive identification, and, much like modern DNA analysis, the often technical language associated with these fields can be used to the laws detriment. Additionally, any advanced video analysis that could be undertaken to improve the quality of an image is generally time consuming, expensive, and can potentially be viewed as evidence tampering (Trango, n.d.).

The assumption that stores and even street lights are surveiled has had a two-fold effect, while providing generally indisputable evidence of criminal activity, it has also served to deter individuals contemplating prohibited activities. However, this potential for "concrete" evidence has also served as a prosecutorial hindrance. Known as the CSI effect, jurors aware of the CCTV systems in place expect perfectly clear picture When CCTV with its necessarily limited capacity for capturing detailed images especially in cities where the cost of nearly continuous upgrades is prohibitive juries and even judges are hesitant to act in instances where the evidence does not meet their personal expectation of what CCTV should capture (Davenport. 2007).

Though the CCTV system is extremely useful in the purposes of evidence collection and early warning, it has also caused the degree of general mistrust in law enforcement bodies to rise (Delaney, 2009). While citizens are increasingly unwilling to accept video evidence of lower quality the fear that such video recording technology is becoming too invasive. A hot button topic of late has been the expected roll out of CCTV systems capable of face recognition. The ramifications for such technological capability in a CCTV system is that an individual citizen without his or her knowledge could effectively be "tracked" by individuals with access to the system. The concern that such power would be misused, and that should it be misused the consequences would be dire (Moran, 2010).

Los Angeles MTA Subway use of CCTV:

The mass transit systems in the United States carry approximately 32 million individuals every day (Nichols, 2010). The extremely high volume as well as the need for efficient passenger movement precludes the possibility of implementing the stringent security measures in place at airports. However, a series of attacks on mass transit systems in the years following the terrorist attacks on 9/11 have highlighted the need for heightened security measures. CCTV systems, even basic models, are able of; zooming in, pivoting, and being positioned wither openly or covertly. Further, it is possible for the camera feeds to be monitored live, or to be recorded and viewed later. This allows officials to locate and analyze patterns of potential suspicious behavior which can ultimately be determined to be planning or preparation for an attack or criminal activity (Kiernan, & D'Agnese, 2007). There is also a degree of comfort for citizens knowing that they are never "alone" on subway platforms or in bus terminals (Post, 2002).

Recently the city of Los Angeles has approved a $7million dollar budget for updating existing CCTV cameras and adding new ones. Though this expenditure especially given the state of the United Sates economy seems difficult to justify, one must leverage the singular expense of installing cameras and the potential expense of the unequivocally longer criminal investigation following criminal behavior given a situation without video surveillance. United States mass transit systems especially those in major business centers

Historical perspective on the use of CCTV:

The earliest forms of CCTV only date back less than 40 years, and still remain familiar today; the obtrusive clunky gray box, delivering fuzzy, black and white, low definition images to some remote or local location. The use and spread of CCTV as a site-security measure through video surveillance is a short one, but the history of keeping record on civilians is long and fraught with conflict (Ng, 2010).

The Domesday Book, completed in England in 1086, was an almost complete record of the population of the country. It is important to note that there was very little pretense applied to the effort of data gathering; the point of the Domesday Book was to assess down to the last oxen, how much tax should be applied to each person. The same concepts applied to census's (and then tax returns and alike) through the years; machines became involved in census counting, ensuring more and more accurate records of peoples living arrangements and worth, but it is not just in regular records that the history of CCTV lies; the famous Arc de Triomphe, in Paris, France, is an architectural Panopticon, with ten streets radiating directly from it, such that from the top of the Arc, there is an unobstructed view of a significant portion of the city. A similar street arrangement is found on Regent Street in London, UK. Both of these arrangements not only provide a convenient vantage point for the security services at the time of construction, but also provided a sense of safety and openness for the affluent residents of the area; both of these landmarks were 'bourgeois' areas within the respective cities that were surrounded by the peasant rabble, and the affluent residents demanded (and got) near-complete safety from these prison-like watchtowers, keeping the filth at bay.

The next great boon to the so called 'surveillance state' the effect of which is still not fully comprehended by the general populace, was the advent of credit cards and store loyalty cards. these little slivers of plastic provide commerce at the swipe of a wrist, but every time that card is swiped, the time, date, location, value, and often the items of a purchase are recorded several times over, by banks, credit card companies, superstores, fashion chains, transport industries, and many other points on the economic tree (Trango, n.d.). These details, over time, can and are used to create a 'picture' of you and your buying habits; Can you be trusted to pay back a loan? What times do you usually come into a store? Do you take public transport because you can or because its cheaper? What bra size are you? All of these details can be correlated over time, and can often then be sold onto third parties for marketing purposes, and, depending on where you are, that information can all be sold including your name and address. (The EU provides protection against such trades, while the U.S.A. currently does not).

This all comes back to the issue of CCTV; at this point, 'the powers that be' have your name and buying habits (from your credit card), your income and average expenditure (from your tax details), your photograph (hopefully from your passport or drivers licence, but more and more from the likes of Facebook and other online social sites), and can tie all that information together with 24/7 live video surveillance across a nation to completely monitor every action and interaction between citizens or subjects (Clifford, 2007).

Law Enforcement and Military Use:

The aspect of CCTV use in popular media that is most recognised and infamous, are the so called 'dash-cams', installed in police and federal vehicles. These cameras, mounted forward facing on dashboards, with embedded information such as the vehicles current speed, and the speed of a suspect vehicle being pursued as well as timecoded information, have been essential pieces of evidence gathering equipment both in criminal cases, and in instances of police brutality.

This proliferation of recording devices now extends to firearms and tasers; now commonly distributed to law enforcement officers with breach mounted camera's that are becoming more and more essential in assessing the legality of police actions and in evidence gathering (Clifford, 2007). Further, the growth of centralized municipal CCTV systems with action-recognition software can provide instant notifications of disturbances such as shootings, brawls, etc. directly to local officers, greatly reducing response times by essentially short circuiting the time it takes for someone on the street to recognise a crime and to call 911 (Post, 2002).

In terms of military applications, one of the most recent developments in urban warfare is the use of robotic scouts; essentially armored remote control cars with cameras (Lewis, 2010). These can maneuver around an environment to assess any dangers before placing any personell in the line of fire. Additionally, the proliferation of Unmanned Vehicles in general in both military and law enforcement settings, has taken countless lives out of danger (Lewis, 2010). A perfect example of this is the use of bomb disposal robots both at home and abroad in conflict zones such as Afghanistan and Iraq; unsecured roadways are scouted by specialised robots that can detect and safely detonate roadside IED (Improvised Explosive Devices), and can do so alot faster and safer than human bomb disposal experts (Nichols, 2010).

Indeed, the concept of unmanned remote control military operations is becoming more and more of a reality, with UAV's (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) such as the recently combat-deployed Predator currently engaged in reconnaissance and in-theatre surveillence in real time to troops on the ground, providing advanced intelligence, allowing for safer and more effective strategic incursions.

Civilian Use:

Many businesses and homes, especially family homes, use external and internal CCTV systems to provide a real sense of safety and peace of mind; As well as lowering the costs of insurance, having a CCTV camera over ones porch can provide 'visitor screening' for the elderly and vulnerable, as well as some more advanced systems allowing 'checking in' on a home from a remote location (Delaney, 2009).

Extending beyond static CCTV systems, many mobile cellular telephones today have built in cameras that often have video recording capabilities (Schenkel, 2009). While these are usually utilised for the production of "Cute Kitten" YouTube videos, or sending a family member a clip of "Baby's first steps," personal recording devices are now being used to protect Civil liberties, such as the cases of police brutality recorded at NYC's Critical Mass events (2006-present), where video evidence shows NYPD officers using unnecessary force against peaceful protestors (Davenport, 2007). While the use of video garnered a great deal of public and media attention, the officers involved were only placed on 'modified assignment'.

Terrorist Events that CCTV was helpful:

The use of CCTV in surveillance has a number of potential benefits in the observation and apprehension of individuals intent on anti-scoial activities. Instances such as the those high profile events discussed in this paper have acted as proving grounds for the controversial technology (Trango, n.d.). The real test of CCTV effectiveness though will come in future events. Now that the efficacy and general means by which CCTV is utilized are widely known and have been the subject of much public debate the question becomes not whether it is effective, but whether it will still be effective in the face of so much publicity. Cities across the country, across the world even, are spending literally millions of dollars per annum in updating and installing more CCTV camera systems (Lewis, 2010). Though cities like London whose network is the largest in the world report a significant decrease in crime, the initial deterrent effect will wear off eventually. Also, methods of avoiding the cameras or disguising your appearance, even disrupting the camera itself are being developed as quickly as cameras are being installed (Schenkel, 2009). In this race to preparedness and safety, these multimillion dollar systems are simply the most recent hurdle criminals are now focusing on clearing effectively in the pursuit of their criminal endeavors.

The shift of formerly exclusively combat devices such as unmanned reconnaissance drones and covert cameras with the ability to recognize a single face in a crowd are moving from war zones into urban areas (Lewis, 2010). This is perhaps the most apparent effect of terrorism and CCTV's the general public is likely to experience. In the war on terror, both abroad and at home the need for immediate and accurate information is more urgent now than it ever was before. Though the car bomb in Times Square was clearly the work of an amateur, it is not outside the realm of possibility that that car bomb could have done effectively the same thing to Times Square and the literally thousands of tourists and residents contained therein that individuals with similar aspirations did to trains in London and Madrid.

Though ultimately there is little that can actually be lawfully done to preemptively stop such terrorist attacks as those discussed above, the simple fact of having a system in which individuals choosing to break the law can be observed early and observed thoroughly will be extremely beneficial (Trango, n.d.). It is important though that the very system implemented to protect citizens does not ultimately grow to suppress them. It is essential that stringent reporting and control protocols are in place to ensure that the unparalleled power access to such a system grants an organization is not abused (Delaney, 2009).

London Train Bombing " Use of CCTV:

There are approximately 500,000 CCTV cameras in use in London (Lewis, 2010). 6,000 of those cameras are located in the underground mass transit system. Though that number allowed for the identification of the London bombers within four days of the event, 2,000 more cameras still are proposed to be added to the underground system (Trango, n.d.). These cameras allow monitors to observe customers on the platforms and in other terminal areas.

Though the initial July bombings were not able to be prevented through the use of CCTV footage, subsequent attempts at detonating explosives on the tube trains were caught much faster than they would have been had CCTV not been implemented in mass transit security protocol. While the cameras serve ass a definite deterrent resulting in universal decreases in crime rate (Nieto, 1997). The real value of CCTV in these instances is the ability to link potential co-conspirators and even potential leaders or organizers for these groups of individuals. It is also possible once an identification has been made to utilize other CCTVs to determine the starting point of the terrorists progress locating potential groups imply by tracking a single member back to their point of origin within the city ( Smith, 2005). This system is shockingly reminiscent of the big brother scenario which citizens feared, however that concern must be weighed against the potential for the huge potential loss of life as was seen in the train bombings in Spain.

Spain Train Bombing - Use of CCTV:

The 2004 bombings of four commuter trains bound for Madrid on a busy rush hour morning are an instance where the use of CCTV aided officials in the collection of evidence and apprehension of perpetrators of a terrorist attack which claimed 191 lives and significantly altered the course of over one thousand others (Smith, 2005). Though officials were not able to prevent the attacks, the events were all recorded and information that something had gone wrong on the way into Atocha station was relayed quickly enough that emergency personnel began responding to the station less than a minute after the last of the bombs that would detonate went off.

The bombings were planned by an Al Quaeda cell operating in Spain (Smith, 2005). The attacks were designed to force the Spanish people to vote for the less popular socialist party who was pushing the platform of troop withdrawal from Iraq. In the immediate confusion following the bombings though, the attacks were mistakenly attributed to Basque terrorists (Smith, 2005). It was through the use of footage from the CCTV cameras in place in the stations that the Basque separatists were exonerated and the culprits were identified. Though this realization ultimately resulted in the Popular Party losing the election as the cell had predicted, justice was still served in that the guilty parties were identified.