The agricultural revolution's role in triggering Britain's industrial revolution

Industrial Revolution: Result of an Agricultural Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution which began in Great Britain in the eighteenth century, and still continues in certain parts of the world, is considered by some historians to be the most significant transformation in the economic environment of human civilization after the Neolithic Revolution. There are a number of reasons that triggered and sustained the transformation of an agriculture-based economy to an industrial-based economy, but perhaps the most significant was the occurrence of an 'Agriculture Revolution' in Britain in the century following 1750. In this essay, I shall discuss why this was so, besides describing the following:

The causes and outcome of the Agricultural Revolution

Features of the Industrial Revolution

The Social Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

Karl Marx and Emile Durkhiem's theories about the Industrial Revolution

How an Agricultural Revolution in Britain triggered the Industrial Revolution?

Most historians are in agreement that the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain following mid 1700s could not have been sustained if enough food was not available to feed the country's rapidly growing population during the period. On all previous occasions of rapid population growth in the country's history, i.e., in the Roman period, around 1300, and in 1650, lack of sufficient food for a population larger than 5~6 million, had proved a stumbling block for further population growth. However, the mid-eighteenth century saw a number of developments in agriculture that enabled sufficient growth in agricultural output to support a much larger population. These developments and the resultant growth in the output of food crops can be considered as nothing short of an "Agricultural Revolution." (Overton, 2002)

Causes and Outcomes of the Agricultural Revolution

One reason for the rapid growth of agricultural output grew was the adoption of new farming systems involving the rotation of crops. It is now commonly known that if a crop is not rotated, then the nutrient level in the field goes down and crop yield drops. But until the mid 1700s the benefits of crop rotation were not commonly known. Lord Charles Townshend is famous for having introduced the first crop rotation system in Britain called the "four field system." After his retirement from politics in 1730, Townshend experimented with the "four field system" on his estate in Norfolk. He adopted the 4-year crop rotation system practiced in Holland and used turnips and clover as two of the crops in the rotation cycle. ("The Four Field System," 2004) The system provided the benefit of "crop rotation" for the fields, the turnips were used to feed the livestock during winters and clover provided nitrogen to the fields as well as grazing for the animals.

Another important innovation in agriculture was the invention of a "Seed Drill" by Jethro Tull (1674-1741). Until the invention, farmers planted the seeds by throwing them all over the ploughed field from a bag. Much of the seed was wasted because of uneven distribution. Jethro Tull's Seed Drill consisted of a wheeled vehicle with a box filled with grain which could be pulled behind a horse. It was fitted with a wheel-driven ratchet that sprayed the seed out evenly as the Seed Drill was pulled across the field. ("The Seed Drill," 2004) The Seed Drill planted seeds at regular intervals, at the right depth and covered them with earth. As the seeds were now planted in straight lines, a mechanical horse-drawn hoe could now be used to remove weeds from between the crop plants. (Ibid.)

Another factor which contributed to the increased crop yields at the time was the system of "land enclosures" that gradually replaced the traditional division of fields into "strips." This enclosed system of field became possible due to larger land holdings. It was easier to practice the system of "crop rotation" in the larger enclosed farmlands.

Crop intensity was also increased by land reclamation, achieved through clearing of forests and the draining of the fenlands of Eastern England, starting from the 17th century onwards.

The combined outcome of all these factors was nothing short of an "Agricultural Revolution." This "revolution" is amply is reflected in the figures of crop yields. For example England exported 11.5 million quarters of wheat in 1705. By 1765, wheat export had risen to 95 million quarters. This is despite the fact that Britain's population had grown substantially during the period. Additionally, the livestock, due to the introduction of selective breeding and the availability of turnips, increased in quantity and quality.

Features of the Industrial Revolution

The main features of the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, as well as cultural. During the period, an astonishing number of technological innovations were made. These included the increased use of new basic raw material such as iron and steel; increasing use of new energy sources such as coal, electricity, and petroleum; the invention of new machines, such as the power loom, the steam engine and the internal-combustion engine and most all -- a new system of organized work known as the factory system, which emphasized increased division of labor and specialization of function, as opposed to the previous system of artisanship and home-based workshops. The Industrial Revolution also saw tremendous development in the field of transportation and communication, with the introduction and increased use of the steam locomotive, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio. Another distinguishing feature of the Industrial revolution was the systematic application of scientific principles to all aspects of the industry. All of these technological innovations resulted in a tremendous increase in the exploitation of natural resources, and mass production of goods. (Ashton, 1997, pp.4-6)

Theories of Karl Marx and Emile Durkeim

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) are two of the leading philosophers / social scientists of the nineteenth century who have formulated influential theories about the consequences of the Industrial revolution.

Marx's theory about Capitalism seems to be largely influenced by the socio-economic outcomes of the Industrial revolution and the growing influence of Capitalism during his lifetime. He was appalled by the naked exploitation of the workers by the owners of the factories in European cities. He believed that the "value" of a product is the result of the labor put in by the workers and the capitalists always exploited the workers by paying him less than the value, thereby accumulating the surplus value for himself. Such exploitation, Marx stated would eventually result in a "class struggle" which would result in a violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) by the proletariat (the working class) resulting in a "Socialist" phase of the Revolution in which all capitalist private property would be confiscated by a government led by Communists. ("The Communist Manifesto," 1894) This would be followed by a utopian Communist phase of the revolution in which all classes would disappear and there would be no need for a government. Such a Marxist Revolution never occurred in any industrial country and factory workers were able to get better wages and working conditions for themselves.

The French sociologist Durkheim was also greatly concerned by the social consequences of the Industrial Revolution and much of his philosophical work is an effort to come to terms with its effects. He seems to be particularly concerned about the fragility of the modern society and attempts to find how it can be held together. He detected a sense of "anomie" in the post-industrial society -- a sense of "rootlessness" due to the absence of social norms in a society in flux.

In his famous doctoral thesis The Division of Labor in Society (1893) Durheim examines the forces that hold societies together and calls the force, 'solidarity." Durkheim theorizes that primitive societies that are characterized by a simple division of labor and a homogenous population (the pre-Industrial age societies) are held together by "Mechanical Solidarity." On the other hand, societies with a high division of labor or increased specialization (i.e., modern societies) are held together by "Organic Solidarity." In his view, the division of labor had made workers more alien to one another and yet, paradoxically, they were more dependent upon one another because no single worker in the age of "specialization" could hope to build a product by himself. Durkheim thought that the alienated workers of the modern age would feel less alienated if he knew that they were part of the whole and their individual actions were contributing to the accomplishment of a common goal. (Jones, 1986, pp. 35-36)

Conclusion

As we saw in this essay, the 18th century Industrial Revolution in Britain is undoubtedly one of the defining moments in human history. Its effects have been all pervasive and are still being felt in different parts of the earth. Although there were a number of causes behind the Industrial Revolution, most historians are in agreement that the Agriculture Revolution which occurred concurrently in Britain helped to trigger and sustain it. The Industrial Revolution also led to far-reaching and significant social changes that shook the very fabric of the societies in which it occurred. Understandably, leading philosophers of the time such as Karl Marx and Emile Durheim were influenced by its consequences and have tried to come to grips with them in their works.