Conception of Project Management Is

¶ … conception of project management is actually the summation of the preceding centuries' worth of work and development within this area. Although this discipline was not termed as such until the 1900's, it has slowly evolved much like any other process utilized throughout the course of time and which includes "building processes" which "have led to the development of project management" and, the basics of which "can be traced back to these periods of time" (Yuen 383) that are discussed within this current study.

These time periods encompass the medieval period in Europe and in the Near East, and were stratified to include the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Golden Age, the Crusades, the Carolingian Renaissance, the Romanesque Period as well as the Gothic Period, which collectively account for "project management in the medieval societies from the 5th to 15th century" (Yuen 390).

In much the same way that many of the research parameters within Project Management in the Medieval Period: From the Byzantine Empire to the Gothic Period borrowed concepts from adjacent and previously existent cultures to further advance aspects of construction and its techniques, (which were vital components of project management in previous time periods), the nature of project management has also "moved in stride with the fluid and changing project environments " (Yuen 383) to refine itself, gradually, into the firm academic discipline that it is today.

To truly understand the process of this development, however, one must view the research contained within this study as it specifically applies to project management. In that respect, the application areas of the projects selected within this study all relate to the construction of architectural monuments, since "the research regards building construction and engineering structures as the application areas of project management (Yuen 7).

In that respect, the application areas that the aforementioned epoch were analyzed in terms of their project management include their construction technologies, traditions of the master builder, building project activities, architectural principles, as well as their specific skills in general management.

Moreover, this study has found that these application areas are the direct result of specific environments, which are codified as cultural, scientific, and economic, and which had a profound influence upon the impact of the building projects during each respective time period, as well as on the development and continuation of the refining of project management in general.

Therefore, one can posit that the monuments erected during the medieval period actually symbolize the best of that time periods social-cultural contributions or its zeitgeist, which is why the five application areas and three environmental influences were used as the 8 research topics for this study. Once historians, readers, and project management professionals are able to understand the connection between the designing and construction of buildings, which both symbolized and actualized the management of projects during medieval period, the project management findings of this study become that much more lucid.

This notion is particularly true for the conception of project management during the medieval period, as the results of this study consistently indicate that "Project activities are created to answer the cultural, political, and social needs of current situations through the available body of knowledge -- scientific, economic, and management knowledge" (Yuen 384). This statement suggests the overall importance of project management during the medieval period, which was largely a means of addressing and providing for a number of concerns through the construction and usage of an edifice.

The utilitarian aspects of several of the works created during these many epochs allude to this fact. If one were to pause to consider a structure such as the mosques that were created during the Islamic Golden Age, which served a variety of purposes -- some of which were religious, others related to education, others still addressing social needs -- the true nature for the reason the science of project management had to develop becomes abundantly clear. People needed the services provided by it, for many different reasons.

This fact is demonstrated by the multifaceted purposes of the mosques created in the Islamic Golden Age, for example, in which "such temples and their surrounding cities were not only places of worship, but also a location for communal gathering designed to encourage group identity. They evolved into the political centre of Islamic society" (Yuen 330).

Furthermore, another highly important aspect of the findings within this study is in alignment with the fact that project management is only as effective or as good as the surrounding environment with which professionals have to utilize.

The veracity of this statement was readily demonstrated by the notion that project management is largely reliant upon "scientific, economic, and management knowledge." The findings of this study prove that this body of knowledge is the means of facilitating project management, which is also in accordance with contemporary standards of project management which places a high value on knowledge in order to implement this discipline. In fact, "effective project management requires that the project management team understands and use knowledge & #8230;from at least five areas of expertise" (PMOBK Chapter 1).

Therefore, even in contemporary times, project management is largely facilitated by the proper implementation of knowledge. What is most significant about these findings and the value placed upon the wealth of knowledge that environment plays in project management is that, for the contemporary project manager, the true nature of his or her profession is revealed through the results of this study. What this discipline is actually about is facilitating solutions to the myriad needs of society -- in whatever capacity or organization that a particular project manager is involved.

Furthermore, this study proves that many times, such solutions can be multifaceted and help people in more than one way. Project management is actually the reflection of political, social, and most of all cultural needs and provides viable responses to such needs. In much the same way that "There is a mutual and dynamic interaction between cultural, scientific and economic forces, and building project activities" (Yuen 375), there is a highly similar interaction between cultural, scientific and economic forces and contemporary project management.

Most often, these forces serve to create the environment that influence the solutions that project managers create, and a play a substantial role in the nature and the efficacy of such solutions. Additionally, this study has patently revealed that the contemporary project manager can ultimately find the basis for his or her occupation in the master builder tradition.

There are too many parallels between these professions for the former not to have descended from the latter, as many of the principles of management and communication that contemporary project managers utilize within their work are reminiscent of those master builders, who facilitate building projects by acting as "the palpable link between a number of vital entities that included most saliently, communication from the client… and the labourers who were actually doing the building" (Yuen 371).

This fact is probably the most noteworthy finding of the entire study, at least in terms of contemporary project management. It alludes to the notion that this profession has been practiced long before the current name for it was termed, and that in all regards the master builder was the project manager who would eventually document… plans to educate others…about techniques of… project management (Yuen 371). 2.

Relevance to Project Management This research study provides a chronological history of the evolution of project management from approximately the fifth century to the 15 century, a period which spans 1000 years and during which time a number of crucial developments were enacted to this discipline which was not actually formalized as such until midway through the 20th century.

As such, "this study is intended for project management professionals who would like to explore the history of project management" (Yuen 6), and ideally understand how contemporary techniques within this field were initially termed and conceived. The key to academicians understanding the research contained within as relevant to project management, however, is based upon the fundamental principle that "the research regards building construction and engineering structures as the application area of project management" (Yuen Research Summary 1-2).

Due to the relatively late emergence of project management as its own discipline, this particular viewpoint that the study is based upon is understandable and extremely relevant to project management as it is understood today since "Building practice progressed alongside the development of other professions such as agriculture, medicine, economics, mathematics and theoretical science" (Yuen 13).

However, due to the fact that project management has traditionally lacked a "historically conscious foundation" (Yuen 14 of its genealogy, this study provides that beginning with the Medieval period of both Europe and the Near East in order to give professionals within this discipline an additional perspective on the current state of this field. Furthermore, by defining previous historical events and circumstances in academic terms that are currently used for project management, a great value is placed on aspects of this profession that are implicit or subtle.

By definition, project management is widely considered "as it is defined in a Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMOBK Guide) as "the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in order to meet project requirements" (ch. 1)" Yuen 10. However, in order to consistently be successful in this profession and in the completion of projects, there is a significant more amount of consideration and work to be done within this field.

These additional considerations form an indelible component of the present research, which has stratified these concerns in ways that are germane to the proper implementation of project management, and which should not merely focus on the abilities of an individual (such as a project manager), but include a gestalt of "knowledge and skills from the areas of expertise of "project environments," "general management skills," and "Knowledge of the application area" (Yuen 386), that are "a deliberate orchestration of all these areas of expertise to complete a project." By analyzing what these different environment areas were in previous centuries for the completion of successful projects in Europe and the Near East, the research contained within this paper delineates specific components that are influential in the conducting of contemporary project management.

Subsequently, what is traditionally viewed as the application of the particular skills at the disposal of an individual and whatever particular organization he is involved with, is instead codified into a much greater spectrum that encompasses disparate aspects of one's cultural environment, scientific environment and economic environment, which are determined and used in conjunction with skills and concepts of general management as well as those germane to application areas -- which in this research consists of architectural principles, construction technology, and the master builder tradition.

Quite naturally application areas will vary for specific project managers and their particular projects, but simply by understanding the way the research in this study is presented, other project management professionals will be able to find a correlation between the application areas in this research and those that relate to their own projects.

The importance of the disparate project environments -- "namely the cultural, social, political, economic and scientific environments" (Yuen 386) -- to the effectiveness and the successful completion of such projects is repeatedly demonstrated within this research paper with the erection of monuments, some of which are still existent today. However, there are fundamental academic principles of project management, as they are taught and implemented within contemporary society, that are also elucidated within this study and that are of immense interest to professionals within this line of work.

In many ways, one may consider the cultural and social environments of a project as vital to its accomplishment, since, "Project activities are undertaken within various economic, demographic, educational, ethical, ethnic, and religious contexts, all of which need to be appreciated by the project team" (Yuen 25). The relevance of the cultural and social environments to a particular project is demonstrated in its completion.

For example, it would be impossible to distinguish the social and cultural environment that spawned the Hagia Sophia, which was originally created in the sixth century a.D. And is still existent today, from the zeitgeist that spawned its creation. The stability of the Byzantine society that would be reflected within this enduring testament to the efficacy of project management was financed by a stable principle of economics that relied upon trade, since the empire was located within a nexus of important civilizations during this time period.

As a direct result of this degree of affluence, Byzantium was highly accomplished in areas of science and other cultural aesthetics -- including law and classical music -- all of which were responsible for the culture that defined this epoch and played an intrinsic part in the relatively swift management of the completion of the Hagia Sophia, which the following quotation denotes. "Byzantine scientists actively put mathematics into practice, continuing the efforts of the ancient Greeks.

In the field of architecture, early Byzantium watched Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus construct the Hagia Sophia church using mathematical formulae" (Yuen 43). The cultural and social environment that engendered this enduring monument (that is today used as a museum) was integral to the effectiveness of the management of this particular project. What were fairly essential to the management of the application area of this project was the numerous innovations in construction technology and techniques that were able to fuel the rapid erection of the Hagia Sophia.

The cultural environment of relative affluence and developments in aesthetics were manifested in the Hagia Sophia's circular dome, the usage of which was largely pioneered during the Byzantine time period from, as well as its "innovative use of penditives, which are curved triangles supported by half-dome masonry" (Yuen 60). These innovations in the application areas of the Hagia Sophia as a project were the direct result of the surrounding culture that fostered innovations in a number of other areas and was fuelled by solid economic support.

Therefore, the relevance of this example to the field of project management is evident: contemporary organizations should strive to create or participate in an expansive culture that is progressive and conducive to many of the formal principles of the contemporary science of project management -- such as "the five project management process groups" of "initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, and controlling and closing (ch 3)" (Yuen 21).

Another aspect of this study that is immensely relevant to the field of project management as it is widely regarded today is its examination of the various conceptions and techniques associated with general management in a historical context spanning a period of over 1,000 years. The value of this aspect of the research of this study to project management should not be underestimated, primarily because "General management is an area of expertise of project management; it represents the organisational and interpersonal skills to get projects done.

It is the skill that determines how resources are allocated and optimised. It is the foundation of project management skills" (Yuen 255). Subsequently, general management was one of the key areas of research for this particular study. One of the key findings of this study that should definitely be incorporated into contemporary project management methods is the fact that "the understanding of managerial techniques varies from culture to culture" (Yuen 256).

Given the emphasis on culture that both historical and contemporary organizations placed on culture, the fact that managerial techniques differ between cultures, and may actually reflect those cultures, is a fairly important component of project management. To that end, this study demonstrates that a static conception and implementation of project management would never be effective when used within different time periods and cultures, as a brief examination of some of the findings produced by the different epoch considered in this study prove.

The management techniques responsible for the building of much of the Crusade architecture, which was centred around defence and a culture in which armed conflict was a reality, would more than likely not have produced the vast, aesthetically and culturally pleasing mosques that were endemic of the Islamic Golden Age time period.

In fact, it is interesting to note how many of the historical practices of management that were used during the Muslim epoch analysed within this study, which took place from the eight to the 13th centuries, are a direct result of, and are enmeshed with, many of the cultural values that were existent at the time.

In a society that was certainly religious, the principle form of management was filtered from Allah to relationships between the government and citizens, supervisor and employees, that was best illustrated by Al-Ghazali's Nasihat, which contended that "good leadership was a sacred duty and pleased God if executed correctly. In order to provide effective leadership, the leader must establish a model of right or moral conduct and be kept informed regarding any information that might affect his management of the empire.

This reinforced the connection between moral conduct and effective management" (Yuen 259). These standards, of course, were also applied to the management of the creation of such noteworthy construction projects as the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Furthermore, it is interesting to note how similar the tenets of management that were used during the Muslim time period studied in this research are to the interpersonal skills that are essential to aspects of project management as it is viewed today.

There is a definite moral component to the leadership and motivation consideration of these skills, the latter of which is principally employed for "empowering people to perform to the best of their ability and to overcome obstacles as they arise" (Yuen 25). The exhibition of solid ethics and moral behaviour serves to create effective leadership as well as motivate individuals to perform their tasks, which is central to the concepts of both project management and management in general.

The research performed within this paper traces the genealogy of such ideas of general management, which are vital to project management as a whole. Therefore, this study is relevant to the field of project management since it illustrates previous methods of management and leadership -- such as the notion that there is a divine element of both -- that may be of use within this discipline today. 3.

Recommendations In an academic sense, this study has a number of prudent applications that directly relate to the field of project management and to project managers, in particular. The responsibility incumbent upon a project manager is considerable, since it is this professional who "controls the assigned project resources and balances the constraints of scope, quality, schedule, budget, resources, and risk during the project to meet the project objectives in the most effective way" (Yuen 22).

In that respect, the history and the development of the master builder tradition, which was the initial purveyor for many of the concepts and practical applications that would go on to be termed project management in the early part of the 20th century, can provide a great degree of insight for these professionals and for the work they hope to individually and collectively accomplish.

The similarities between these two professions have been sufficiently evinced in the research in this study, since the master builder was charged with "Acting as the medieval project manager," in which "he composed and orchestrated the areas of expertise to complete the specific project" (Yuen 382).

The parallels between these jobs functions and that of contemporary project managers as elucidated by the quotation in the initial paragraph of this segment of the research summary of Project Management in the Medieval Period: From the Byzantine Empire to the Gothic Period are fairly obvious.

Subsequently, there are a number of findings related to master builders and their allocation of resources and usages of a number of specific elements that are inherent to the discipline of project management that modern day project managers would be well to internalize and incorporate within their own work. An examination of the various epoch covered within this study demonstrates a number of specific advances and innovations that applied to master builders; however, the most eminent of these can probably be found in the later medieval period.

The Carolingian period in particular is demonstrative of a high calibre of proficiency in project management that can be attributed to the tradition of the master builder, especially since during this time period there were several "highly proficient structures created in a relatively brief time (well over 500 substantially sized buildings in little more than 100 years)" (Yuen 372).

Specifically, this time period attests to the value of formal education within the discipline of project management on a two-fold plane which includes that of the resources utilized by project management (in the form of their laborers) as well as the formal education of master builders (which is akin to the formal education of project managers).

The considerable influx of skilled laborers greatly increased in the Carolingian epoch due to the advent of trade guilds, which played no small role in the proficiency of construction and project management that this time period is known for, as the following quotation largely implies. "Such guilds and the labourers they produced had a definite influence on the architectural innovations of this epoch, which included the developing use of arches, buttresses, and stone vaults, in addition to the application of mathematical principles to construction" (Yuen 372).

The implicit recommendation for contemporary project managers contained within this quotation is highly important. One of the most effective means that these professionals can improve the proficiency of their own work is by improving the resources they have at their disposal.

Such improvement can be evinced in a fairly simple manner by making sure to hire applicants that have the most amount of qualifications for a particular position or a specific job, as well as allotting resources for continual training and education of employees so that they are able to specialize within their positions and ideally come up with innovations that parallel and are as efficacious as those responsible for the development of arches and vaults and other architectural advances during the Carolingian timeframe.

The true value of labor unions is not just for employee rights and benefits. From a managerial perspective, such unions allow professionals to specialize within their trade and to learn different aspects about it. Teaching one of the most valuable resources available to project managers, the employees who work for them, to specialize and learn disparate aspects of whatever profession or project that they are engage upon, will only aid to the overall ability of project managers and their employees to complete their work.

Another highly demonstrable lesson is learned about the master builder tradition that should be readily utilized by project management professionals within modern times, which relates to the formalized education necessary to progress and work within this field. The veracity of the preceding statement is evinced by an analysis of the Romanesque epoch, and is also directly related to the formation of trade guilds at the following quotation proves.

"…such guilds also had a profound effect upon the master builder tradition, since it was during the Romanesque era, when guilds were achieving a degree of prominence previously unknown to Europe, that master builders began educating their own progeny during onsite construction to pass along their trade secrets and techniques to their brood" (Yuen 372). This quotation underscores the point that there is an inherent value in the networking and sharing of ideas between project management professionals.

Despite the fact that in contemporary times these professionals must complete formal education to earn a position within this field, the research in this study indicates that there should still be continual education -- in the form or networking in which professionals can help one another and discuss varying techniques and skills that assisted them within their line of work -- to further along the facilitation of new ideas for this profession, much in the same way that the formation of trade guilds and the networking and interaction between professionals within those occupations resulted in architectural innovations.

To that end, it is not improbable that project management professionals who do the same thing at a professional -- not educational (as in attending college) -- based level will be able to further the science from which this occupation has evolved. The root of this occupation, of course, lies in the master builder tradition. The expected outcomes and results of the continuance of this tradition of networking and exchanging ideas between likeminded professionals is quite simply the furtherance, or the evolution, of the field of project management.

This field cannot stay static, for the simple fact that the world in which it exists is continually changing. Formal education in this subject can account for a basic cognizance of the fundamental concepts that this science is based upon. But in terms of practical application, the exchanging of information between professionals engaged within this occupation with practical experience to reinforce their assertions will be extremely influential and benign.

Furthermore, the research within this study attests to the fact that this exchange of ideas and utilization of principles that were practiced before was instrumental to the development of virtually all professions, as the following quotation suggests. "One of the recurring motifs that held true for virtually all of the different periods was that in some way or another, they were all made cognizant of the innovations related to construction, management, as well as the application of labor that had previously existed" (Yuen 387).

The sharing of information between project managers that is recommended in accordance to the results of this study would simply continue this tradition that largely engendered this discipline and is responsible for where it is today. Furthermore, the results of this study are of particular use for employers of various organizations. For all of the influence that project managers have on the specific carrying out of objectives related to projects, they are mere employees, who can only work with the best of the resources that they have available.

The professionals who have an even greater effect on such resources at its relation to the efficacy of specific projects are the employers who are largely responsible for procuring specific sources and resources that are endemic to project management as a whole. This study has repeatedly shown the importance of the specific environments that project management relies upon to accomplish tasks.

These environments generally consist of cultural environments, scientific environments, and economic environments, all of which are greatly responsible for the resources that project management utilizes to exist as a practice. Collectively, the scientific and economic environments play a substantial role in the determining of the cultural environment of a certain time period. The culture of a particular time period -- or of an organization in contemporary society -- reflects its sophistication and its ability to carry out projects, which the following quotation alludes to.

"Many of the discernible factors that influence or even culminate in the ability to orchestrate a long-term goal from initial conceptualization to a tangible, palpable demonstration of completion directly involve attributes that are immensely revealing of the sophistication of a particular society" (Yuen 388). These "discernible factors" include developments in regions of science and economics that are essential to a culture's sophistication.

For instance, many of the outstanding achievements in project management that were accomplished during the Byzantium Empire were facilitated by a zeitgeist that was decidedly advanced in all of the key environmental areas that play a role in project management.

Economically, this civilization prospered from the fact that it was a central trading nexus, which allowed its civilization to focus on more refined cultural aspects such as the pursuit of science and innovations ain realms of architecture and construction that included the "conception of vaulting, placement of weight, (which allowed for the construction of taller and more curved structures than previously thought possible), as well as innovative uses of pendentives and the structuring of weight on the corners of buildings" (Yuen 312-313).

These innovations were greatly responsible for outstanding projects and some of the most exhilarating architecture evident today, such as the Hagia Sophia. In that respect, then, employers of project management professionals and owners of education can benefit from this study by realizing the importance attached to company or organizational culture, of which project management, in many respects, is a mere extension of.

By being able to provide for scientific, cultural, and economic environments that allow for innovations and progression of techniques that only benefit organizations and companies, such employers will be able to advance their own entities as well as the important field of project management which is so integral to contemporary society. This study has shown how the culture in which a project is undertaken has a significant effect on it value, a concept which should be understood and applied to those who create cultures within which project management professionals work. 4.

Usefulness of the Study and its Academic Value In many respects, the usefulness of the current study is actually due to its academic value. As previously noted in this paper, "despite the relative newness of project management science as an academic subject, project management as a discipline has been around since ancient times" (Yuen 7).

The true value in this study is that it effectively terms and encompasses the previous accomplishments of history -- which was the direct result of myriad theories and ideas of project management, although it was not called that at the time -- into contemporary academic regards for this discipline.

This study allows those involved in project management as it is known today to view he erection of monumental works of architecture, that have spanned a thousand years or more, through a contemporary lens that actually shows the progression of this discipline throughout quite a long time in history.

The academic value of this research then, to one with an earnest interest in the erudition of project management and the history that engendered many of its modern principles, lies in the fact that enormous structures of enduring value such as the Hagia Sophia did not randomly sprout, but were the direct result of "building construction, and engineering structures as the application area of project manager" (Yuen 7).

Therefore, the true academic value in this research is in elucidating and presenting several facets of contemporary project management through their historical beginnings, which "adds insight and empirical data to the existing body of knowledge concerning project management" (Yuen 6). Furthermore, the application of such knowledge can prove to be invaluable, particularly since it is the very nature of knowledge to be learned and spread so that further knowledge is in turn engendered from it.

In practical terms then, this study has the potential to be credited for "unearthing lost or forgotten aspects of project management that are absent from today's science" (Yuen 9). In fact, there are a number of disparate ways in which the present study has demonstrated its academic value through highlighting a number of important principles of contemporary project management that proved to be most eminent in historical settings.

One of the most important of the findings of this study is that is illustrates that "At any given time in history, project management professionals should have the ability to comprehend their "project environments" namely the cultural, social, political, economic and scientific environments" (Yuen 386). The current research conducted within this paper indicates that these different environments actually help to facilitate the means for producing project management during the six time periods reviewed within its pages. In.