Discrimination and Affirmative Action

Discrimination and Affirmative Action DISCRIMINATION The current study investigates gender discrimination and the relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Women report through survey questions on how they view gender discrimination against women today, their level of commitment to an organization, and their level of agreement on how satisfied they are in their jobs. The purpose of this study is discussing certain issues that pertain particularly to women, because majority of women's find barriers when moving towards the top.

According to the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, the definition of glass ceiling refers to "the artificial barriers present in the workplace to the advancement of women and minorities." Regardless of achievements, the glass ceiling is an "unseen" barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the top of the corporate ladder. The glass ceiling still persists in today's society even though the equity gap between men and women in managerial careers seems to be decreasing.

Despite the Equal Employment Opportunity laws than have been instated for many years, discrimination continues to exist in the United States (Faderman 2005). Women as leaders in the business and public sector continue to be underrepresented in higher executive positions. It is a battle against the traditional organizational culture that males maintain dominance in the workplace as stereotypical leaders.

Discussion According to Nelson (2003), compared to men, women still lag behind in salary progression, women's rewards and work conditions (pay, autonomy, authority) are less favourable, women are more likely to work in dead end jobs concentrating in service-oriented and health-care oriented industries (retail, health care, housing, publishing) resulting in less promotions, and women are less likely to be authorities in the workplace. Women comprise 66% of the United States workforce but only hold 21% of middle management positions and 15% of the remaining 42% are at the senior management level.

It is argued by scholars that the disproportional under representation of women in managerial positions is due to the glass ceiling effect: blocked opportunities for women. Others argue that it is due to a sticky floor: keeping women in lower paying jobs (Edgar 2004). Regardless of the reason, there are more men in managerial positions than women. Men still out earn women in pay throughout the world. Even after controlling variables such as education, age, position, level, and job tenure, women's salaries average only 72-88% of male's salaries.

Near the close of the 1900 century, men represented 95% of senior executives in the largest publically held United States firms. A recent survey of the Institute of Management Accountants reported females earned less than males on all levels of education, management, and certification (Connerley Pedersen 2005). Women are often recognized as the victim in gender discrimination in the workplace. They are looked down upon as the gender that must fight to break the glass ceiling in order to succeed against society's predispositions for them (Vallas 2003).

As some females have succeeded in reaching the top leadership positions in their companies, it is often a struggle that takes years to accomplish. Women are often viewed as the weaker sex in intelligence, physical ability and emotion. This bias against them is often used in the workforce and sometimes used by women against women in competing for a higher position or promotion within the same organization.

Gender discrimination in the workplace has been a significant issue that has been well observed by the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and in Title VII, Civil Rights Act of 1964. Patterns of gender discrimination, especially as related to upward mobility for women, have remained in the workforce since the mid-1980s despite social, demographic, and legal changes. Sex categorization can bias workplace relations and conserve inequality by forcing gender-labelling of jobs, contributing to employers' discriminatory preferences, and mediating willingness to settle for any given job.

Barriers such as "the glass ceiling" are different within each organization, and from level to level within a given organization (Subb Kleiner 2008). Such standards and discrimination can be viewed as career barriers. Fanner and Associates (1997) proposed a conceptual model tor understanding women's inhibited academic/career motivation. Although Farmer et al. (1997) saw women as being instrumental, with a sense of personal agency, she also stated that women "operated within many realistic constraints" that affect their careers.

She posited that a wide range of both personal and environmental influences should be considered when examining career constraints of and barriers tor women (Finnis 2004). Conclusion In conclusion we can say that, the glass ceiling effect implies that there is a stronger gender disadvantage at the top of a hierarchy than at the bottom levels, and that as a person's career progresses these disadvantages worsen. Senior leadership positions have different barriers as opposed to entry -- and midlevel.