Fascism of the Strong Fascism

¶ … Fascism of the Strong

Fascism has become in our modern time something of a pejorative term for any authoritarian or totalitarian principle. Common parlance speaks lightly of a boss or parent being a fascist, or of specific foreign non-democratic nation being fascist regardless of whether it bears other resemblances to the original fascists. One might say that these uses of the term are wrong, but the English language is such that a word taken from the Italian to originally mean one thing may legitimately shift meanings in the public practice to mean something else. However, it is nonetheless important to know that originally, and most precisely, fascism has a very specific set of qualities in a government and culture. Though one cannot argue with the evolution of language, it seems that something is lost when "fascism" moves from being defined, indicative term into being a very generalized term of dislike, because it then becomes impossible to discuss current examples of fascist-oriented thinking without passing value judgments which may degrade dialogue. Is America, for example, showing signs of a slow descent into authoritarian fascism? If it is only a negative term, that question cannot be answered concretely. If "fascism" is a descriptive term, then one may actually be able to analyze case examples and news reports to discover a definitive answer. So it is important that the original meaning of the word be rediscovered and re-explored. If history is to be learned from, then it is necessary to have words that accurately describe that history. The following account deals with the original meaning of Fascism and fascism (capitalization making a difference between these terms), and giving examples of the sorts of regimes which have rightly and unrightly been referred to by these terms.

The term Fascism, when so capitalized, makes direct reference to the political movement of fascismo in Italy, which under the leadership of Mussolini ruled the boot of Italy from 1922 to 1943. "The name comes from fascia, which may mean 'bundle', as in a political or militant group or a nation, but also from the fasces (rods bundled around an axe), which were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of magistrates." (Wikipedia, fascism) Fascism, in its original sense, was considered to be a positive term, albeit it not a precisely egalitarian one, that referred to a political movement towards national and state strength. As the name's meaning implies, the original Fascist movement was very much an outcropping of the historical ramifications of imperial Rome and the nationally powerful social and religious associations with that empire. Italy, which by this point was finally united after centuries of division, was somewhat rightfully experiencing a sense of nostalgia for ancient glory. Fascism suggested bringing it back, and proposed to do this by putting the good of the state over the good of the individuals. Fascism was seeking to resolve class conflict while preserving class status, to provide to all classes some basic measure of life-quality while preserving the wealth of the nation, and to pacify and subdue all the boisterous elements of society without making the people feel enslaved. It was particularly conceived of as a pro-social, pro-capitalist, pro-religion and pro-family political stance, which was also anti-communist, anti-humanist/materialist, and anti-deviance. According to Mussolini in his work the Doctrine of Fascism:

Fascism [is] the complete opposite of... Marxian Socialism, the materialist conception of the history of human civilization can be explained simply through the conflict of interests among the various social groups and by the change and development in the means and instruments of production.... Fascism, now and always, believes in holiness and in heroism; that is to say, in actions influenced by no economic motive, direct or indirect... The maxim that society exists only for the well-being and freedom of the individuals composing it does not seem to be in conformity with nature's plans.... If classical liberalism spells individualism," Mussolini continued, "Fascism spells government."

Oddly, Fascism today has become known as being driven as much by racism as by nationalism or statism. Originally, this was not the case, and in fact Mussolini is reported to have been more concerned about the Jewish population failing to intermarry with the Italian population than he was with the mixing of blood. If they wouldn't intermarry, then how could they be part of the utopian new sense of community he aspired to build? It wasn't until Hitler began to equate treaties and mutual protection with the disenfranchisement of Jews that Italy began deportations, and even then many political leaders and law enforcement agents refused to participate. Racism is not one of the primary characteristics of Italian Fascism or of fascism in general. There are, however, other distinctive characteristics. When Laurence Britt researched seven different fascist or proto-fascist nations (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Franco's Spain, Salazar's Portugal, Papadopoulos's Greece, Pinochet's Chile, and Suharto's Indonesia), he found the following trends to be true across the board:

1. Powerful and continuing expressions of nationalism

2. Disdain for the importance of human rights.

3. Identification of enemies/scapegoats as a unifying cause.

4. The supremacy of the military/avid militarism.

5. Rampant sexism.

6. A controlled mass media.

7. Obsession with national security.

8. Religion and ruling elite tied together.

9. Power of corporations protected.

10. Power of labor suppressed or eliminated.

11. Disdain and suppression of intellectuals and the arts.

12. Obsession with crime and punishment.

13. Rampant cronyism and corruption.

14. Fraudulent [or rigged/cancelled] elections.

Britt)

These traits were all present to one degree or another in Italy in the original case of Fascism. When many other nations throughout Europe starting showing the same behaviors, however, it became natural to refer to their actions as fascist as well. So historians may continue arguing indefinitely about which nations are (or, in most cases, were) actually fascist in nature as opposed to being merely authoritarian. There is a great deal of debate on this issue regarding Nazi Germany. At the time, historically, the Nazis did not consider themselves to be Fascists, and in fact they were significantly less influenced by Italy than vice versa. (Italy took to anti-semitic practices introduced by Germany well before Germany took on very many Italian traits) in fact, the Nazis and Fascists had very significant philosophical differences.

Nazism sought the state's purpose in serving an ideal to valuing what its content should be...[race, philosophy, art, etc.] at the expense of all else. In contrast, Mussolini's fascism held to the ideology that all of these factors existed to serve the state... The only purpose of the government under fascism proper was to value itself as the highest priority to its culture in just being the state in itself... " (Wikipedia, Fascist) This is not, however, the most striking difference between Fascism and Nazism. Other important differences include the fact that Nazism saw itself as vaguely socialist, and it professed to be trying to overthrow the established classes in the creation of a classless, racially-based utopia where all the Aryans lived in peace -- Fascism, on the other hand, sought to maintain the class system while making reforms to its functions and using it as the base for an entire society based on corporatism. Additionally, "Nazism was a metapolitical ideology, seeing itself only as a utility by which an allegorical condition of its people was to be achieved, fascism was a squarely anti-socialist form of statism that existed by virtue and as an end in and of itself. [These] underlying theorems [remain valid, but they have hopefully helped...the contemporary Fascists and Nazis see themselves and their respective political labels as at least partially exclusive to one another." (Wikipedia, Fascism)

If Nazism is not, as it is often claimed to be, an example of fascism, then the next question that returns must be what good examples of fascism actually are. Obviously the best example is going to be Italy itself, considering that this is the place where Fascism was enacted and fascism defined as a blueprint, or archetype, for future regimes. There are a number of other possible examples, though it is somewhat difficult to find a single example which one might not find a viable argument against. Most European nations and many Southern American nations flirted with fascism at some point, and certain writers have even argued that around this same time period America itself was undergoing a more quite sort of fascist renaissance. (Many have also argued that America is currently slipping into fascism under Bush's reign) Perhaps one of the most widely recognized of other fascist nations is Franco's Spain, which (despite the fact that many historians claim that it was only borderline fascist and otherwise merely dictatorial) will therefore make a reasonable second example of the way in which fascism takes root.

Fascism in Italy: The Original Sin

It would be difficult to chronicle all the actual causes of Fascism arising in Italy. These causes are a multitude, ranging from labor complaints to certain individual's feelings of alienation and oppression, to religious dictates from the pope. The closest one could come to putting a date on the beginning of Fascism in Italy would be to magically zip back in time to March 23, 1919, where in a Milan's Piazza San Sepolcro, the founding fathers of Fascism. As their ideas evolved, they began to be more vocal. In 1921 they developed a plan for action for the nation of Italy. That plan evolved as time progressed, but it was still complete enough to actually win the hearts and minds of the people. "While failing to outline a coherent program, fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined corporatism, totalitarianism, nationalism, and anti-Communism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a capitalist system....one in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesize the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia." (Wikipedia, Fascism) in May of 1921, Mussolini's party won 35 seats in the parliamentary elections. Though it had appealed to some of labor's concerns earlier, now Fascism also appealed to the right by working to stop strikes and appease the working class. This approached increased those willing to vote for Mussolini, who in 1922 became the premiere of the right-wing cabinet. "The transition to outright dictatorship was more gradual than in Germany a decade later, though in July 1923 a new electoral law all but assured a Fascist parliamentary majority. The murder of the Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti eleven months later showed the limits of political opposition. By 1926, opposition movements had been outlawed, and in 1928, election to parliament was restricted to fascist-approved candidates."

There are a number of reasons why Italy, of all the nations in Europe, would have been the first to embrace fascism. The return of a past history of the great race of Rome no doubt seemed particularly appealing to a people broken with "national shame and humiliation stemming from Italy's 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the World War I postwar peace treaties seemed to converge" (Wikipedia, Fascism) However, what may be just as important is the overwhelming influence which the Roman Catholic church has in Italy, for about this time Pope Leo XII had begun to preach a social message calling for governments to be much stronger and more regionalistic. This message was embodied in the document called the Rerum Novarum.

The Rerum Novarum] called for strong governments to undertake a mission to protect their people from exploitation, while continuing to uphold private property and reject socialism. It also asked Roman Catholics to apply principles of social justice in their own lives... Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical, Rerum Novarum anticipated much of the doctrine that became known as fascism. Forty years later, the corporatist tendencies of Rerum Novarum were underscored by Pope Pius XI's May 25, 1931 encyclical Quadragesimo Anno which restated the hostility of Rerum Novarum to both unbridled competition and class struggle." (Wikipedia, Fascism)

Not only did the Catholic church support the basic tenets of Italian Fascism, it also actively worked to place and keep Mussolini in power, and eventually benefited from that power. In the 1920s, there was in Italy a Catholic political party, the Partito Popolare, which was opposed to Mussolini and apparently aware of his projected coup and planned to deal with it. However, Pope Pieus XI sent out orders demanding that all clergy refrain from being involved with that party and that they remain neutral in politics. This very suddenly undercut the ability of that Catholic party to stop Mussolini. When the Fascist dictator finally came into his power, the traded tit-for-tat with the Catholic church, which agreed to dissolve the Partito Populare and replacing it was a program called Catholic Action, which was specifically designed not to be a threat to the incumbent. "The organization was forbidden by the Vatican to participate in politics, and thus was not permitted to oppose the fascist regime. Pius XI ordered all Catholics to join Catholic Action." (Wikipedia, Fascist)

Unlike under some fascist rulers, it appears that the people of Italy were actually relatively contented under the rule of Mussolini until such time as he began to get the nation involved in wars that were unnecessary and detrimental to the struggling populace of this country first. Of course, there was some resistance. Fascism was mostly popular with the middle and upper classes. The poor and rural individuals often were those that stood against fascism, and this was particularly true of the revolutionary and anarchist grouped that had predated fascism. Though sources tend to speak about the socialist and anarchist backgrounds that many of the Fascists came from, they also indicated that the bowing down of these groups to Fascism was not a foregone conclusion, and enforcing the background culture of Italy was not always enough to stop radical anarchists from protesting fascism. "The anarchists' will and courage were not enough to counter the fascist gangs, powerfully aided with material and arms, backed by the repressive organs of the state. Anarchists and anarcho-syndicalists were decisive in some areas and in some industries, but only a similar choice of direct action on the parts of the Socialist Party and the General Confederation of Labour [the reformist trade union] could have halted fascism." [Red Years, Black Years, pages 1-2] However, in the end it would not be come great external force or bottom-up revolution -- in the end, fascism would fall by its own weight.

Mussolini and the Fascist experiment eventually came to an end through the weight of his own poor choices. "[There developed] a catalogue of disasters for the ill equipped Italian Army. Mussolini, oblivious to this encouraged foray upon foray in which the Italians suffered many deaths.... At home though, the propaganda began to fail. News of mass deaths in the army, combined with extreme hardship for normal citizens ultimately had an effect. When Mussolini declared war on the Americans, senior politicians decided they had had enough." (Pagewise) Fascism ended there because the people, including Mussolini's trusted officials, decided that no national pride was worth seeing thousands of their youth slaughtered in a war.

Before concluding this section on Fascism in Italy, one would do well to take a quick look at the leader of the pack. Benito Mussolini was the charismatic leader of this movement, and much of its success and its eventually failure lay on his shoulders. On the one hand, he was an architect, who had spent his entire life looking for an answer for society. He had formerly been a leader of a radical segment of the Italian Socialist Party, and "After his turn to the right, Mussolini continued to employ much of the rhetoric of socialism, substituting the nation for social class as the basis of political loyalty." (Wikipedia, Fascist) He presented a truly inspiring image of the state needing the love and devotion of its citizens, allowing individuals to feel as if they are not obeying orders out of coercion but out of true interest in the subject. On the other hand, Mussolini was weak in that he allowed the power of his position to escape him and he got caught up in wielding that power even when it was inappropriate (such as going into battles which could not be won, or for that matter exporting Jews who had previously been supportive allies)

Fascism in Spain: Knowledge of Good and Evil

Fascism in Spain under Francisco Franco is a slightly more complex issue because historians pose some debate as to whether or not it was truly fascist. He was originally supported in his bid for power by a local Fascist group (the Falangist), but many of them were killed during the war and several others took their own leave, which those that remained were apparently relatively marginalized within Franco's camp. His ruling party is described by Wikipedia as being relatively heterogeneous, so much so that the author there suggests that it "barely qualif[ied] as a party at all, and certainly not an ideological monolith like the Fascio di Combattimento (Fascist Party)... His Spanish State was chiefly a conservative - even traditionalist - rightist regime, with emphasis on order and stability, rather than a definite political vision." (Wikipedia, Francisco Franco) However, it meets many, and possibly all of the main traits characteristics of a fascist nation. The Franco reign in Spain certainly showed disdain for human rights, seemed to claim a great supremacy of the military, displayed bonds between the religious and ruling elite, fraudulent elections and general oppression of labor, intellectuals, media, etc. Still, some disagree that Franco was a fascist. "While there was a definite fascist element during the first decade of Franco's rule, most analysts have concluded that early Francoism can more accurately be described as semifascist." (Library of Congress Country Studies) Be that as it may, Fascist or semifascist, Franco may provide a decent example of a very different way in which such a ruler could come to power.