Generating Hypothesis/Research Question Systematic and Critical Reviews

¶ … Generating Hypothesis/Research Question Systematic and critical reviews The long established concepts and specialists reports have progressively been substituted by more organized reviews on the basis of latest researches (Heming and Brereton, 2009). An effort is made to maintain the same standards of researches that were previously maintained, by these organized reviews (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009). Findings on which the review is based should be properly expressed so that the data can be utilized again if needed (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009).

Reviews and researches, based on systematic studies aim to: Classify all the data which is available on the subject. Make a superior selection for preparation of report. Evaluate the standard of research studies. Compose the results by impartial methods Understand what the findings mean and depict a well rounded and an unbiased picture of the conclusions while giving sufficient attention to the mistakes present in the proof gathered (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009). Numerous researches lay emphasis on correction of errors if any (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009).

Most of the reviews that are assessed by the peers and are of high standards are provided in many scientific journals and in other electronically stored data (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009). Many evidences are evaluated in these reviews and if the review is based on more than two types of data or evidences the process is termed as the mixed method of carrying out systematic assessment (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009). Progress is observed in the techniques used in many reviews. The most valued aspect is the medical usefulness in any review.

Along with this aspect many other areas are also being considered such as suitability and effectiveness (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009). All the available records and reviews are not a reliable source of information as they are not prepared by due hard work and sincerity therefore reliance on them will sometimes be misleading. By verification and rechecking of the studies, deficiencies can be removed (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009).

By critical review we mean that it is an assessment that revolves around a combination of critical observations and a related synopsis (Australian School of Business, 2011). What is the significance of an analytical assessment report? In few courses of Australian School of Business students have to present analytical assessment reports so that they can understand the main concept of the theoretical background, evaluate the concepts and present the study based on selective findings through an intelligent approach (Australian School of Business, 2011).

The aptitude of reading and understanding it is not only useful in college studies but it is also a requirement of any business. By strong analytical skills an up-to-date evaluation can be made and any change is efficiently applied so that problem is addressed. Steps that should be considered in assessment of an article are given as follows (Australian School of Business, 2011): 1- Study the main synopsis of the subject, including the introduction and the conclusion (Australian School of Business, 2001).

2- Understand the overall concept along with the main idea by reading it. 3- Gather the main information written in the article. Mark the main issues. Note the important points (Australian Business School, 2011). 4- Evaluate and confirm that the notes include: the concept of the article, along with the procedures applied and the conclusion. 5- Write a summary by using the information. 6- Make sure that you have not copied the words of the author or make use of quotes carefully (Australian Business School, 2011).

What does critically commenting on any article entail? Critically reviewing an article revolves around carrying out a process of assessment and analysis. The process of analysis then centers on dividing the information that is being depicted so as to seek and clarify the objective, the salient features, the method used and the outcomes and results deduced from the article. This is usually carried out in the preliminary step that entails summarizing (Australian School of Business, 2011).

Moreover, evaluating the article critically revolves around trying to find: Presumptions that have not been stated The argument steps that are not considered rational Any other objectives of the respective article which are not clearly mentioned Carrying out an assessment of the article revolves around formulating judgments about the significance of the respective article that can either be negative or positive against a particular benchmark (Australian School of Business, 2011).

The question that arises is: what is the benchmark that could be used with respect to critically assessing any given article? Below are some examples of the points that can be used as a criterion while reviewing an article. However, it is not necessary to make use all of them while carrying out the evaluation on account of they being irrelevant, depending upon the respective article (Australian School of Business, 2011):.

The promptness with which the article is written and published The extent to which the given article has made a contribution that is original The rationale of the perspective that is put forth The feasibility of the proof that is being presented The methodology being considered The framework being employed What one should consider is most importantly, is the methodology appropriate? Has the structure being implemented correctly? The questions that should be answered by the assessor are whether the framework used is correct and appropriate for the given article? Has the approach or strategy being described in an unambiguous manner? Does the framework contain any flaws or mistakes that can be rectified? Other questions that need to be answered include: has the study been done in a thorough manner and whether it is comprehensive, complete and has all the necessary details? Has anything been deleted while carrying out the research from being included in the article (Australian School of Business, 2011)? The outcomes or conclusions Have the outcomes and the conclusions been presented and explained completely, and unambiguously? Do the outcomes and results appear to be valid and logical? The possibility of the information being understood in more than one way should also be considered.

Another point that can be considered is whether the writer takes into account everything that he or she came across in his research or he has neglected things that could have had a significant influence on the article (Australian School of Business, 2011)? Other things that can be considered are given follows: The feasibility of the findings and opinions formed The completeness and comprehensiveness with which the article addresses the subject The significance of the article with respect to the other articles on the same subject Whether the article is appropriate, given the target audience The degree to which the article meets the particular requirements of a certain reader or user (American School of Business, 2011)? Conclusion Similar to most of the writing that is carried out at university level, a critical review consists of an introductory section, the main body of the article and a conclusion that is presented in the last (Australian School of Business, 2011).

Introduction The introduction ought to: Offer a backdrop or a setting for the article, for instance information that clarifies the background or shared knowledge Present the title or the headline of the respective article and introduce the author (usually a full name is mentioned here) Clarify the profession of the writer when applicable Take into account the factors that make the topic significant and include them in the review Clarify the objective with which the article has been written Depict a sign or tendency that represents the general view of the article as a whole (Australian School of Business, 2011) Body The main body of the critical review ought to: Shorten and evaluate the main points present in the article Clarify that the view of the authors are being depicted and not of the assessor.

This can be done by appropriately referencing. Assess the article Conclusion The conclusion ought to: Present a summary of the earlier discourse Depict a final judgement about the significance of the article Make a comment upon the upcoming subjects or matters and consequences of the opinion that has been presented (Australian School of Business, 2011). Part 2: HIV in Africa Prevalence Since a number of years, the area of Sub-Saharan African account for majority of globally reported HIV.

Almost twenty three million people that reside in the area are afflicted with HIV / AIDS (PLWHA). Even though the greatest number of people suffering from HIV existed during the mid years of the 1990s, HIV today is still one of the biggest obstacles to the development and health of most of the nations in Africa (USAID, 2011a). The prevalence and severity of HIV differs in every country over the entire continent.

The occurrence rate of HIV in Madagascar is about 0.1% while countries that are present in the southern cone have a prevalence rate that is greater than fifteen percent. However, the number of deaths caused by the ailment has decreased over the past few years as a result of the 'prevention of mother-to-child transmission' of HIV (PMTCT) and antiretroviral therapy (ART) (USAID, 2011a). The influence or effects of HIV / AIDS differs significantly in the countries present in the region, relying upon the duration and the magnitude of the epidemic.

Many of the countries go through epidemics that are generalized. The occurrence rate in adults have gone to a percentage that is greater than twenty in some of the countries that include Swaziland (26%), Lesotho (24%) and Botswana (25%), as per the Joint United Nations Program carried out on HIV / AIDS (UNAIDS) (USAID, 2011b). The rest of the countries undergo concentrated epidemics with Burundi being an example of the disease hotspot.

Here the occurrence rate of the disease is as high as almost forty percent and this rate is around sixteen times higher for sex workers when they are compared with the overall adult population as a whole. In the region of West Africa, an overall occurrence rate is considerably less than what is prevalent in Southern and East Arica (Gilks et al., 2006). However, in areas for MARPs or where most-at-risk populations are present, epidemics are not a rarity.

Because of the differences, the strategic methodologies to counter the ailment ought to be developed to appropriately address the epidemiology of the respective disease in each country and area where it is present (The Sydney Declaration, 2007). Distribution A heterogeneous epidemic scenario exists in the area of Sub-Saharan Africa that revolves around varying trends and prevalent in the stated three areas. When it comes to the region of Southern Africa, occurrence rate has come to a stable point that is very high in many of the countries.

However, in the area of East Africa, the prevalence rate has gone down since the year 2000 and has settled at a level that is lower than what is existent in Southern Africa (The Sydney Declaration, 2007). When the area of West Africa is considered, the occurrence rate is significantly less when compared with the overall rates of the rest of the region with an average of less than two percent prevalence rate existing.

However, some exceptions are Cote d'Ivoire where there is an average of 3.4%, Gabon had an average of 5.2%, Nigeria had an average of 3.6%, Cameroon had an average of 5.3%. Inside the countries mentioned, the influence of HIV differs considerably (Sarna et al., 2008). It is reported that it is the urban centers that are affected the most.

Among the three areas, the main type of transmission is offered by heterosexual sex, although in areas that have concentrated epidemics, other types of transmission can serve an important function, not excluding migration, mother to child transmission, men having sex with men and sex work (Burgoyne and Tan, 2008). Southern Africa. Southern Africa had around eleven million people with PLWHA in the year 2009 and is still one of the areas that are most severely affected.

Given this, it's not a surprise that almost fifty percent of all the PLWHA come from Southern Africa. According to UNAID, around forty percent of the women that are tested HIV-positive globally reside in the respective sub-region (Bunnell et al., 2006). Of all the PLWHA in the world, out of five at least one resides in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Botswana. Around 6 million of them reside in South Africa. One of the countries that have the greatest occurrence rate all over the world is Swaziland.

It is estimated that of its entire population, one in every four is tested HIV positive (Zachariaha et al., 1007). The occurrence rates in majority of the countries in the area have settled down, though in the country of Zimbabwe the rate has undergone an increase in light of newer infections potentially associated to its continuing political and civil destabilization (Watt et al., 2009). Moreover, reducing the amount of HIV infections in the area of Southern Africa is increasingly becoming a growing problem and difficulty.

When compared with other areas in the sub-region, Angola consists of a considerably low HIV occurrence rate that is settled at two percent (Bekker et al., 2006). This is partly because of the restricted travel that is allowed between countries at the time it was undergoing the civil war in the years between 1975 and 2002 that slowed the growth of the disease in the country (Feradinni et al., 2006). In the respective area, the epidemic influences people in most of the levels of income, education, migration and society sub-groups.

Increase of programs that are designed to prevent is essential to develop ongoing decreases in the occurrence rate of HIV (Ivers et al., 2005). East Africa In the countries present in East Africa the occurrence rate of HIV has gone down or settled at a stable rate in the years that have gone by recently. In the respective area, the severity of national epidemics differs with each country. Also, the main type of transmission is still given by heterosexual sex.

Various and simultaneous linkages are especially difficult as they associate a reasonably low risk for people, the ones that are in committed relationships or are married at a higher threat (Stringer et al., 2006). The occurrence rate of Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya is greater than 5% standing at 5.4%, 6.2% and 6.3% respectively. The presence of hotspots in these countries is not a rarity and the occurrence differs with region to region.

The area of Rwanda has undergone considerable success in decreasing the prevalence in adults that now stands at a mere 2.8%, even though the occurrence rate is still significantly high in pregnant women that are of nineteen years of age and below (Nachega, 2006). Because of the continuous controversies and disagreements occurring in a military coup present in Madagascar and the DRC or Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is uncertain what the future will hold for the HIV / AIDS epidemic.

In the region of East Africa, Madagascar has had the lowest occurrence rate with only 0.1 prevalence rate existent in its adult population (Bristol-Myers, 2007). West Africa The information that is provided by the UNAIDS depict that the West Africa countries have one of the lowest HIV occurrence rate in the whole of Sub-Saharan region of Africa. The occurrence rate in adults is greater than two percent only in the regions of Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon and Cameroon as mentioned above.

A decrease is reported by the UNAIDS in the occurrence of HIV in Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Cote d'Ivoire and Niger especially with respect to pregnant women. In most of the other countries, the epidemic has also reached a stable level, even though concentrated epidemics continue to exist in MARPs, for instance men who are having sex with men (MSM) and in females working as sex workers (Weidle, 2006).

For instance, in the region of Senegal the occurrence stands at less than one percent, even though, among the sex workers living in Ziguinchor, the occurrence rate almost touches the thirty percent mark. Few of the countries have experienced decreases in the growth of occurrence, particularly with respect to young people.

In the area of Ghana, the occurrence with respect to young adults, the ones who are of less than twenty four years of age, has gone down considerably from being 3.2% in the year 2002 to being 1.3% in the year 2009 (Posse and Baltussen, 2009). In order to prevent PMTCT, the provision of ARVs or antiretroviral drugs has been enhanced. However, the provision level continues to be low in the area of Central Africa and West when compared with Southern and East Africa (Mshana.