Green). The Science - Literature

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The Science - Literature Review is right after the uncompleted essay

Ironically, it was during the early Middle Ages -- when scientific knowledge was in retreat -- that science initiated a break with philosophy and became its own master (Saliba 32). The Byzantine Empire kept alive the discoveries of Greece and Rome, especially in the areas of science, mathematics, and medicine. They preserved the writings of Galen, Ptolemy, and Aristotle, and religious scholars like Aquinas and Buridan added extensive commentaries. While these were religious men, they were also dedicated to the spirit of early scientific inquiry. Byzantine scholars pursued advances in mathematical knowledge by interacting with Greek and Arabic sources. There was a similar cross-pollination between Europe and the Near East in fields such as zoology and astronomy (Saliba).

Additionally, it should be noted that the Byzantine Empire was responsible for several other advances in areas not intrinsically related to science, but in realms such as art and sports or in entertainment. Byzantine music played a substantial role in the fostering and development of Greek music (Lang). In particular, the Byzantine Empire's innovation of the quoted sovereign melody is one of its most important artistic contributions to music, which can still be evidenced in several musical compositions today. In fact, many of the Byzantine advances in the realm of music are the basis for what has come to be known as classical music.

In terms of sports, the Byzantine Empire has long been regarded as one of the most influential factors in the propagation of sports among other empires, most notably among the Roman Empire. It should be remembered that the Byzantine Empire was largely considered to be the Eastern section of the Roman Empire, so this transmission of ideas among such worthy kingdoms should not be altogether surprising. Still, after the decline of the Byzantine under the leadership of Constantinople, there was a new age of recreational and sporting activities which was largely attributed to the Byzantine kingdom (Schrodt).

2. Islamic Golden Age (According to the literature review, please elaborate into550 words)

The Islamic Golden Age was vital in the development of social knowledge and science (Falagas, Zarkadoulia and Samonis 1581 -- 6). During the whole of this period there were important developments in law, literature, technology, sociology, philosophy, navigation, agriculture, industry, and economics. In addition to specific inventions and discoveries, Muslim scientists made key advances in using the scientific method itself, including quantitative, empirical, and experimental research (Durant 162 -- 86). Al-Haytham pioneered experimental physics and biology with his work in optics using the scientific method (Durant 53 -- 5). Many Greek texts were translated into Arabic during this period, which was important for Muslim science but also for the preservation of the Western scientific tradition when it was later returned to Europe through translations. Among other writers and philosophers whose works were thus restored into European culture due to their retranslation from Arabic into native tongues, Aristotle's work in particular would be influential among both Muslims and Europeans (Lebedel 109).

Additionally, it should be noted that the influence of Islam had more overt, direct affects upon Europe, some of which were not quite as beneficial as that of the translation of ancient texts. Islam actually expanded onto the continent in many regions, such as in Sicily and in Spain, each of which were subjugated, colonized and accordingly populated by Muslim forces in approximately 700 A.D., while the southern portion of France came to be populated by large quantities of Muslims around 730 A.D. Interestingly enough, it should be noted that the length of time in which Muslims (principally Moors) controlled and dominated Spain was for a longer length of time than Spain has been free from the subjugation of such Islamic devotees. The effect of the Muslim invasion of the continent would be manifest in more literary accomplishments, as Al Hakam II mad e a point to gather as many books as he could from native Arab countries and shelve them in a library, which would eventually go on to become a translation centre for those same texts to be reworked into Latin (Lindberg 57-8). This particular literary movement was further fuelled by the presence of Arab scholars who migrated to Europe and introduced Greek ideas into their surroundings which they had previously studied in their former countries (Laguhlin 120).

The Islamic world created important institutions. It helped develop the concept of the modern public library, where people wishing to educate themselves could check out manuscripts. The Arabs designed the library system of cataloguing (Francoise 988 -- 91). The library became a centre for scientific discussion. Perhaps most importantly, the medieval Islamic world also invented the modern university and its system of diplomas and form of professorial instruction and lecturing, which later spread to Europe. The influence of Islam in the realm of science was significant as well. Islamic medicine helped pioneer several advancements in the field that were not accounted for in Europe, which still held onto a lot of superstitious tradition during this time period. One specific example of innovations in the field of medicine attributed to Islamic doctors and scientists include Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, which was published in approximately 1025 A.D. And contained the important concept that infectious diseases could be spread through the air, as well as other salient principles including methods for testing new medicines. (Tschanz),

3. Crusade (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 150 words)

The Crusades were instrumental to Europe scientifically, since through extensive contact with the Arabic world during the Islamic Golden Age the mathematics, medicine, and social institutions of the Arabic world were discovered by Europeans. Algebra and optics became known in the West. Older Western traditions were reintroduced through the acquisition and translation of Arabic texts that preserved Greek and Roman science. This was also a time when military and naval technology experienced tremendous growth given the conditions of warfare that drove the Crusades. Yet as the following quote sufficiently evidences, both Europeans as well as residents of the Islamic Middle and the Near East benefited from the exchange of culture, heritage, and scientific achievement brought about by the Crusades. "The Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas.... If, indeed, the Christian civilization of Europe has become universal culture, in the highest sense, the glory redounds, in no small measure, to the Crusades. (The New Catholic Encyclopaedia 508)."

4. Carolingian Renaissance

(According to the literature review, please elaborate into300 words)

The Carolingian Renaissance, which commonly refers to a number of educational reforms and revitalization of culture evinced approximately during the reign of Charlemagne was noted for its advancements in many diverse fields, not the least of which include astronomy, philosophy, literature, art, architecture, and more. Charlemagne made a considerable effort to propagate the spread of knowledge about his subjects, the majority of which were illiterate and spoke languages which were incongruous with those which the majority of books were written in. Consequently, the king busied himself with the creation of a number of schools and learning institutions, which were also established to attract as wide an array of scholars as possible to his kingdom (Scott 30). New curricula was subsequently engendered to accommodate these institutions, including workbooks, textbooks, as well as the trivium (which was comprised of areas of study including rhetoric, logic and grammar) and the quadrivium (which was comprised of geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy) as the basis of education (Cantor 189). It is also significant to note that the majority of such schools were under the control of ecclesiastic facilities, as well as of noble courts (Butzer).

In addition to establishing a tradition of scholarship which that of contemporary times has been implied to descend from, Charlemagne supplemented his establishment of formal educational facilities with the founding of several libraries throughout the kingdom (Dutton). Students were urged to take up the pursuit of liberal arts, which was frequently contrasted with specialized fields of study and came to include a variety of subjects such as science, math, literature, history, as well as the study of language. The primary connotation with the term liberal arts is that the student studying such subjects is "free" to pursue a number of fields, as opposed to honing his or her erudition in one particular area of expertise (Marrou 266-267).

5. Romanesque Period (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 300 words)

Scholars now often call the twelfth century a European renaissance. The knowledge contained in classical texts was rediscovered in new Latin translations from Arabic texts. Aristotelian influence predominated together with the wisdom and learning of other ancient writers, while the former was often used as a framework for intellectual debates which readily expanded both philosophy and other areas of knowledge (Grant 127-131). The European university system was established alongside monasteries as centres for the propagation of knowledge. Scholars like Robert Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus, and Roger Bacon wrote about natural science to a growing audience. While Christianity did not recede as a dogmatic cultural system, it was not entirely determinative. Scholars could explore natural phenomena with an openness to past views, although often the learning acquired was purely rational rather than experimental, and was fused with a biblical worldview. In other words, the renaissance of the twelfth century played an integral part in transmitting scientific methodology within a predominantly religious environment that required thinkers to harmonise science with religion.

Other significant achievements took place in less theoretical, and more pragmatic areas of erudition, such as those which were largely responsible for a technological revolution which included the development of advancements in the windmill, compass, and rudder (Crosby). Such inventions directly affected the management of conventional means of production as well as that of economic growth. Other more erudite pursuits included the translation of both Greek and Arabic books on subjects such as philosophy, medicine, mathematics and science, which were readily translated into Latin by scholars such as Gerard of Cremona, who came to Spain to "copy a single text then stayed on to translate some seventy works" (Turner).

6. Gothic Period (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 200 words)

By the late Middle Ages, the pursuit of knowledge under the guise of science was still intertwined with Christianity. Though they placed God at the centre of their universe, Christian scholars were deeply curious about the way the world worked and "rarely allowed theology to hinder their inquiries into the physical world." Nicole Oresme, for example, pursued a quite rigorous examination of the world without recourse to theological explanations. The seeds of Deism were planted, as advocated by natural philosophers such as William of Conches who believed God made the universe, which itself followed predictable natural laws (Hannam 53). Natural philosophy was became the core of medieval curricula, was embraced by the Catholic Church and was disseminated throughout the Catholic Church and Western Europe, as a new Renaissance science outside of older universities which had "already done their foundational work (Grant 173). Concepts of gravity, inertia, momentum and the mechanical universe were being considered while "the most advanced ancient thought had already been discovered and translated" (Hannam 177). Unfortunately, disease and famine plagued Europe for many years during this period, which cut short the expansion of knowledge and scholarship until the later Renaissance. Additionally, peasant revolts in several areas of the continent, particularly in Germany, kept societies unstable and unable to continue their scholarly pursuits (Blickle).

Byzantine Empire

There are several factors which may account for the proficiency of Byzantium economics during the height of this empire's prowess. The fact that the capital city of Constantinople was situated at the nexus between North African, European and Asiatic regions enabled the empire to be a center of trade within all these disparate locations, which would last until the emergence of an Arabic power which would eventually invade and overthrow the empire. Aided by a tax levied in Constantinople, the Byzantium empire amassed significant economic prosperity through the trade of grain and silk, the latter of which was utilized as a means of currency throughout the its borders (Laiou -- Exchange and Trade, 720). Other commodities which this region was able to export included ceramics, salt, oil, wine, fish, vegetables, spices and perfumes, while the trade of slaves took place, but was generally discouraged. The commerce of such products enabled the Byzantium Empire to take control of the Venetians and the Genoese by the 13th century (Matschke 771-772), precipitating the empire's economic decline since it would eventually lose the ability to determine important internal and external economic drivers.

The backbone of the empire's lucrative trade industry was its agriculture, the production of which was generally based near the sea coast areas of the Balkans and Asia Minor. Land owners utilized peasant laborers to tend their crops; village inhabitants were taxed accordingly for the land on which they lived and worked, enabling the state to procure another economic source. Although the prevalence of such workers was relatively low prior to the 9th century, the populations of such commoners burgeoned afterwards, despite the fact that a large percentage of it was deemed unproductive (Lefort 267-270). The production of agriculture and the surplus of trade profits allowed the empire to coin silver and bronze at a value higher than its intrinsic worth (Morrisson, 918-932).

Islamic Golden Age

There are several important economic concepts still in use during contemporary times which may be attributed to innovations of Muslims during the Islamic Golden Age, which developed notions of taxation for goods, contracts, torts, as well as of charity and welfare, and low interest rates. Many of these notions would not be implemented by surrounding regions (such as Europe) for several years after their initial practice in Muslim territories (Spengler 274), until the decline of the Greek and Roman civilizations around the middle of the 13th century (Schumpeter). Much of Islamic law, which of course formally instituted its principles of economics, would go on to playa a decisive role in the formation of European law in its present existence (Roy 132).

The Agricultural revolution was of particular economic importance to the facilitating of commerce and trade during the Islamic Golden Age. Fueled in large part by the importance many of these nation-states placed on scholarship, the cultivation and numbers of Muslim populations flourished, enabling for a greater labor force (Watson) which would establish trade routes and the exportation of agricultural products to Africa, Europe, and Asia. The high rates of literacy in the Muslim played a large part in the flourishing of such commercial activity (Burke 165-186), which included the facilitation of a host of modern economic tools and ideas including promissory notes, trusts, ledgers, checks, and organizational enterprises that were instituted at a state level (Banajai 47-74). One of the most important of these notions was that of the cartel, which its original conception consisted primarily of Muslim vendors from Yemeni, Indian, and Egyptian descent (Postan and Miller 438-440), who would be known as Krharimas and exert a great deal of influence in the controlling of trade routs, the mining of gold, as well as in the methodology of finance and the procuring of copious fortunes (Labib 79-96).

Due in large part to the proficiency of Islamic practitioners in the areas of trade, the Islamic empire emerged as the world's leading economic power from the seventh to the 13th centuries (Hobson 29-30), which enabled it to establish a system of global banking. Muslim traders expanded their routes to include the greater part of Europe (Hobson 29-30) as well as regions throughout the Atlantic and Indian oceans, as well as the Mediterranean and Chinese sea (Labib 79-96). Merchants would frequently purchase goods and sell them based on commission while forming alliances independent of religion or creed and including Christians, Jewish people, atheists as well as pagans. In such a way was the Islamic Empire able to facilitate its international trade, which was so pervasive it allowed for a check to be written up in Baghdad and redeemed for currency in Morocco (Peters 125).

Crusades

Despite its obvious ecclesiastical pursuits, one of the principle reasons for the facilitation and implementation of the Crusades was to procure additional means of economic prosperity and stability for many of the nations and individuals who participated in the Crusades. One particular economic benefit of the Crusades was the establishment of new trade routes to the Holy Land and throughout the Byzantine Empire for Western Europe and other regions on the continent. Italy, led by Sicilian Normans and city-states such as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa profited the most from trade with regions near the Mediterranean (Lewis A), as Europeans were able to trade for fruits, spices, ivory, diamonds, and gun powder, among other products.

Of additional economic importance during the Crusades was the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which enabled Europeans to introduce a feudal system in the Holy Land which was largely based upon the iqta for pecuniary measures 9 Prawer, 205). The Kingdom also produced revenue by garnering tributary payments from coastal cities including Egypt and Damascus, as well as by levying taxes upon caravans of Islamic passengers which would traverse its boundaries. One of the principles groups to capitalize on these economic transactions and others was the Knights Templars, which are credited with introducing the concept of banking throughout Jerusalem and Europe (Martin 47). The Templars engendered several capitalist concepts within the region, including systems of bonds and checks, which would lead to eventual implementations of ideas accounting for interest accruement and other assets (Baigent and Leigh 78-81).

Additionally, the Templars fostered economic stability during the Crusades by storing physical assets of pilgrims who embarked on the journeys, which introduced the concept of credit throughout Europe and simultaneously allowed for crusaders to be at considerable less risk of theft or other forms of dispossession from pillagers (Martin 47). By representing the interests of a wide portion of Europe involved in the Crusades to the Holy Land, the Templars were able to effectively regulate large amounts of commerce on the part of Christian practitioners, as well as amass significant tracts of land. Their prowess with trade allowed for a the financing and deployment of a sizeable fleet, all of which allowed them to largely modernize European financial practices while earning the distinction as being world's first multinational corporation (Benson 90; Ralls 28).

Carolingian Renaissance

The economic influence of Charlemagne's empire was fairly vast in scope, as it extended from the Mediterranean to the North Sea to encompass parts of the Atlantic Coast, the Saale and Elbe rivers, as well as the Pyrenees, and was characterized by a feudal society which utilized agrarian production, industry, craft, and both international and regional trade (Verhulst). The king's economic practices were decidedly austere in both practice and principle, as his "Capitulare de villise of 802" regulated the documentation of income, as well as the interest rate in which money could be borrowed and leant. Carolingian trade (the pricing of which was another aspect which Charlemagne himself closely set and monitored) included the production and commerce of swords, pottery and glassware, which were widely distributed to Islamic and Byzantine merchants, some of which engaged in special pacts (Kreis -- Charlemagne). Such measures were part of a number of economic reforms instituted by the king, which some scholars have speculated played a direct role in the influencing of future European economic measures.

Some of the more salient measures of reform introduced by Charlemagne include included the standardizing of coin minting based upon silver, as opposed to the conventional gold "sou" which was previously utilized within the empire, which enabled the Carolingian empire to eventually eliminate the use of a variety of economic denominations within the kingdom (Scott 40). The basis for which much of the commerce and economic prosperity within the Carolingian kingdom was founded upon was its feudal system, which was predicated on both legal and militaristic obligations of lords, vassals and fiefs (Ganshop; Brown) and became popular during the 9th century. Such a society provided a measure of assurance to the general populace that a group of potent individuals would secure those who lacked the power to protect themselves from outside enemies (Kreis -- Feudalism).

Romaneque Period

The economic practices endemic to the Romanesque period were largely due to the necessities of compensating for an expanding population base as well as shifts in wealth due to Norman institutions such as serfdom, which "Were superimposed on an existing system of open fields and mature, well-established towns involved in international trade" (Dyer 14). It is worth mentioning that vast majority of the new population base were peasants and serfs; this explosion in the amount of citizens can be best illustrated by a glance at England's population growth in 1300, which burgeoned from 1.5 million in 1086 to approximately 5 million (Hodgett 148; Kowalski 248).

A number of measures were employed to accommodate the expansion of the general populus in the Romanesque period, not the least of which was the commercial mining of "iron, tin, lead and silver; coal was also mined from the 13th century onwards, using a variety of refining techniques" (Bailey 131-132). By the 12th century, the production of coal in particular became a prosperous means of procuring revenue which resulted in an improvements in royal financing (Bailey 49). Additionally, Agriculture preserved as a means of providing economic security, particularly the farming and raising of wheat, sheep, cattle, pigs and oxen. The ubiquity of agricultural means of production was largely attributed to the fact that so many of the peasants were tied to the land they lived and worked on (Dyer 19-29). In fact, the large numbers of peasant workers accounted for a significant decrease in the usage of slaves (Bartlett 319), as well as the facilitation of a number of small towns. Such towns were able to engender a relatively new class of merchants, which were the precursor to a forma middle class in that they believed in free enterprise, liberalism, and could afford to distinguish themselves from the ample minions of roundly destitute peasants who provided the main source of labor in the serfdom of the Romanesque Period.

Large amounts of taxation were both directly and indirectly responsible for the penury of most peasants, as there were taxes on trade, payments for feudal military service, as well as standard feudal charges (Lawler and Lawler 6). But the peasants weren't the only ones struggling with taxation as the following quotation demonstrate in by stating that Edward I was "struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100, and considering the growth in size of the English economy, the king's share of the national income had dropped considerably" Carpenter 51). Exacerbating the issues of taxation was the fact that many Englanders had to purchase items at prices that surpassed their income, due to the fact that they could not produce as much to account for the burgeoning population expansion.

Gothic Period

The population growth and economic prosperity of the Gothic period was checked by a series of factors including plague, famine, and a minor ice age (the so-called Little Ice Age) (Medieval Economics). The bubonic plague decimated half of Europe's population in 1347, then returned with a vengeance in 1360 to typify this epoch of misery which was compounded by substantial taxation on farm land and a rigid hierarchical structure that would not (or could not) change to meet many of these demands (Medieval Economics. The effects of the plague and the colder, wetter weather produced an effect on the economy that left it "profoundly shaken, but not destroyed" (Jordan 78; Hodgett 201). However, several of these factors would benefit the surviving peasants since wages rose to accommodate the dearth of workers; when the aristocracy devised a series of initiatives to counteract these benefits (including poll taxes and sumptuary laws) to prevent the lower classes from securing certain products and clothes associated with their new found wealth) a rebellion ensued in 1381 (Jones 16). Although the rebellion was eventually quelled, this armed resistance was the beginning of the demise of serfdom, and signaled a shift in the obtaining of revenues from taxing trade or borrowing as opposed to directly taxing peasants (Jones 207).

Relief from such economic despair came in several forms, including from shipbuilding, which became a major industry for the first time and proved to be the most significant late medieval investment in England (Kowalski 235). The exportation of clothing, particularly wool and cloth, also accounted for economic revitalization. Other prudent economic principles, such as the loaning of money at excessively high interest rates (usury), also helped, as "few cases were prosecuted by the authorities (Wood 173). Manufactured goods produced by pewter and iron became efficacious means of providing much needed currency; the popularity of the latter may be demonstrated in "the rapid growth in the number of iron-working guilds, from three in 1300 to fourteen by 1422 (Geddes 184). The result was the growth a national, English capitalism which manifested itself in the decline of foreign merchants, as was as the typical standard system of annual affairs (Meyer 161-164). Still, these economic means would persist into the 15th century, and were of particular use in several regards, some of which included "exchanging money, regional commerce and in providing choice for individual consumers" 9 Ramsay xxiv).

The Management - Literature Review is right after the uncompleted essay

1. Byzantine Empire (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 450 words)

Despite the fact that monotheistic Christianity was the official religion of the Byzantine Empire, society did not progress forward in thinking with regard to government or management during this time. Nonetheless, through writing and grammar this empire contributed significantly to the preservation and transmission of classical knowledge so that other societies could benefit from past systems (Anastos 410; Tatakes). Little was added to the history of management during this time (Cohen). However, the preceding statement should not imply that the Byzantine Empire lacked sufficient managerial processes that demonstrated an amount of efficacy which is to be admired. The majority of these processes were simply not innovative and were based on previous principles already in existence. For instance, the empire had a fairly effective crisis management policy, which was largely financed by private benefactors who were responsible for the merging of the Church and state to vastly influence societal affairs (Stathakopoulos, 172). It should noted that that the successful management of crises has been attributed to protecting the Byzantine empire from significant death and disease due to calamities such as plagues and famines (Stathakpoulos, 173), although due to the fact that these systems were financed by wealthy landowners, there was a definite partiality in the preservation of certain areas and classes of people who occupied them.

Once he came to power in 306 A.D., Emperor Constantine mandated a prefect form of government which controlled several facets of society from the supervision and regulation of guilds to the ownership of private corporations, as well as conventional public offices such as the police and holding units (Evans 43). The concept of the prefect would continue within the empire for several centuries to come, including during the reign of Justinian I (from 527 to 565 A.D.) to the actual composition of the Book of Prefect which may have originated with Leo VI the Wise in 886, or during the reign of Nikephoros II Phokas (whose tenure was from 963 to 969 B.C. The book details the particular municipal management techniques for black market as well as conventional trades and craft (Maniatis 339-369). Specific topic covered in the manuscript include chapters on butchers, fishmongers, inn-holders and bakers (Freshfield), as well as merchants trading in silk, dresses, imports, wax, gold bullions as well as bankers. Significantly, the book has long been considered a guideline for a the control of the populous and its commodities by an esoteric, hidden sect, which may direct the best of those resources to benefit both common people as well as those guiding them. The primary conception which the book was based upon was to undermine the control of economics for the poorer subjects while instituting a highly stratified, regimented system of control which would envelop the upper classes 9 Freshfield Chapter 7).

2. Islamic Golden Age (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 350 words)

Muslim culture thrived during the eighth through thirteenth centuries in areas ranging from engineering and philosophy to artistry and trading (Kraemer; Turner). During this time, medieval Islam was open to humanistic notions of individualism, liberalism, religious freedom, and cross-cultural exchange (Hassan). It is fairly noteworthy that this society had a highlghy diversified workforce (particularly in the context of the time frame in which it existed) that employed women as well as men, utilizing the former in a variety owf ways which would not be seen in Europe until several centuries later and which included using women to work as doctors, scholars, financiers and brokers (Shatzmiller 35-401). Another influential factor related to the workforce was the fact that concepts of manual labor began to improve and be viewed as beneficently as those involving more skilled trades, largely due to the notion of manual work being representative of creation in a religious sense (Shatzmiller 400-401). Management of finances was encouraged as well during this time period, since it was related to keeping track of debt as mandated by the Koran (Lewis 113). The notion of the auditing of individual accounts allowed for them to be free from error (Rab). The work of Al-Ghazali in particular had a significant influence on leadership and management (Chowdhry). Al-Ghazali was a Persian theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist, mystic, and scholar. His Nasihat (literally "Advice") was a collection of political writings which addressed issues relating to political authority. For instance, he commented on the role of communication as well as the personality traits which lead to effective leadership (Chowdhry). He contended that the line of communication to leadership should be known and repeatedly tested to ensure that leadership is engaging with the organisation as a whole. For Al-Ghazali, good leadership was a sacred duty and pleased God if executed correctly. In order to provide effective leadership, the leader must establish a model of right or moral conduct and be kept informed regarding any information that might affect his management of the empire. This reinforced the connection between moral conduct and effective management.

3. Crusade (According to the literature review, please elaborate into 450 words)

Although Crusade was largely a period of religious warfare and papal control, the unwritten code of knightly behaviour known as chivalry was decisive for leadership and management during this period. In connection to management, the historian Constantinou sees chivalry as a symbol for authority in management. He notes, "western usage contains two metaphors, both derived from the man and his horse -- chivalry and management, the one from French cheval, 'a horse,' the other from Italian maneggio, 'the handling or training of a horse'" (Constaninou). At this time, knights were authoritative. They gathered at a round table, which has been called "the first management model." It entailed that men were chivalrous on the outside while demonstrating graciousness and respect towards one another when they met behind closed doors. The shape of the table suggested that there was no hierarchy or single leader. It was a model of equal partnership between the knights in their quest to slay the dragon of injustice (Manch and Henning 41). Eventually chivalry evolved courtesy books which provided guidance for behaviour that required respect for women and concern for the impoverished (Sweeney). The chivalric code of honour was the principal influence on management and behaviour during the Crusades in spite of the perpetual bloodshed. Moreover, in terms of management it was clearly a system that valued group communication. Chivalry in the model of the round table showed that the way in which a group approaches its social interaction will have an effect on the communication process itself.

From a more myopic perspective, the specific management of the four Crusader states which were created in the Levant after the initial crusade and which included the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli were divided into vassals and included royal officers as well as the king's court. Officers of the state included Constables -- who had a number of duties including, perhaps most importantly, the determining of borders which the territory was confined to (Richard 77) -- marshals, seneschals, chamberlains -- who were responsible for the royal household (Richard 77) --, butlers, and chancellors. Also, there were various court systems employed for different classes of citizens within the Crusader territories, such as the Cour des Bourgeois (located within Jerusalem) which was for non-Latin, criminal affairs (Nader 158-170). A set of laws known as the Assizes of Jerusalem were written during the 12th or 13th centuries (Nader 45), while other legal codes for the Crusader territories in this time period include canons of the Council of Bablus, which were utilized in the 12th century and then discarded in the following century in favour of the Assizes of Jerusalem (Kedar 330-333). The purpose of these courts were to carry out the specific notions of justice and equity with which chivalry was based upon, and to ensure that these rights were enjoyed by commoners as well as by nobles. Still, it was possible for certain population types, such as Italians, to enjoy a degree of leniency and legal autonomy which kept them from reproach (Nader 170-177).