History of Espionage

Espionage has largely been a part of the way in which foreign affairs and foreign policy was conducted especially during the Cold War period. The double agents as well as intelligence spies were regarded as some of the smartest and at the same time dangerous people in history. The topic of this research is Alger Hiss, one of the most representative figures of American intelligence that would ultimately be accused of being a spy for the U.S.S.R. At the time in which the rivalry between the U.S. And the U.S.S.R. was at its peak, during the Cold War.

The resources used for this research are both academic as well as part of the actual trials that Hiss was subject to. More precisely, there are documents from the NSA Archives that are taken into account and analyzed as well as testimonies of the people that were part of the Alger Hiss case. Further, in order to set the historical background of the entire case, coverage of the situation in magazines such as Time is also important because it provides a closer yet less influential view on the background and situation.

The aim of the research is to reveal the controversy surrounding Alger Hiss precisely because he played a vital role in the history of American espionage not necessarily through the acts he committed but rather because it is one of the few cases in history that would eventually be indicated as that of a double spy or covered agent for the U.S.S.R.

The Cold War period represents one of the most important and at the same time intriguing period of recent history. This is largely due to the mystery that, to this day, surrounds some of the events that have taken place during that time. A crucial role in maintaining this mystery is played by the crucial role espionage played during this time. The spies that operated between the U.S. And the U.S.S.R. are some even legendary figures in the history of both countries. However, one of the most important cases that takes into account the way in which the American espionage came to being and the role spies, in every form and means, came to be trained, relates to the pre-second world war two period, the inter- war period and especially the 1930s. An example from this period is that of Alger Hiss, one of the most well-known American operatives that, even today, is a controversial figure both in the history of the U.S. As well as in the history of the judicial system of the United States.

The current research focuses on the way in which Alger Hiss, at his day, one of the most important people in the American intelligence, managed to shortcut the American judicial system and at the same time, accomplish his missions as his initial job description required. More precisely, the Alger Hiss case pointed out not only issues related to the American intelligence system but also to the means at the disposal of the Federal government in dealing with elements that, despite the fact that they were part of the system, were somewhat above the judicial law and order.

Christina Shelton's book "Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treson" plays an particularly important role in providing more information concerning the individual, the circumstances of his espionage activities, and his subsequent trials. One of the most intriguing things about Shelton's book is that in spite of the fact that she considers Hiss guilty she does not hesitate to acknowledge the series of positive concepts about this man. "By virtue of his intelligence and highly successful academic career at Johns Hopkins University and Harvard Law School, as well as his distinctive charming manner, grace, good looks, and sophistication, he turned himself into an exemplar of the eastern upper-class liberal establishment."

Shelton actually wants her readers to understand how a great part of Hiss' behavior was meant to influence individuals around him and the media to appreciate his persona.

The Alger Hiss trial is part of the history of the American intelligence and espionage service. Despite this however, the famous trial that Hiss was subject to as a result of attacks to national interest was based on the idea that Hiss had engaged in activities that resulted in espionage for the URSS and against the American interests in the country.

In order to better understand the role played by Alger Hiss not only in the history of American espionage but also in that of the American system of justice, it is important to consider the historical background and context the activities Hiss undergone.

The historical setting relates to the already evolving confrontation between two ideologies: the democratic and the communist one. It must be pointed from the beginning that the Bolshevik revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire revealed a different side not only of the Russian people but also to the Russian leadership. The revolution that took place in 1918 paved the way for an authoritarian regime that aimed at re-instating Russia in its what was then considered to be its rightful place in history: the most important power in the world. Despite the fact that after the First World War, Russia, what was now the U.S.S.R. (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics), failed to take any economic or cultural advancements, the aim was to regroup and become an European and soon a global power again.

By comparison, the United States had decently withdrew from the peace of the Versailles Treaty and even abandoned the peace project that President Wilson himself proposed thru the 14 Points that led to the creation of the League of Nation and embarked in a plan for reconstruction and development, given its condition as a winning party in the First World War. Even so, the 1929-31 economic crisis affected the U.S. greatly as it did the entire world. Notwithstanding this setback, the U.S. was on its way to both recovery and fast development. The industry that had already been set in place during the pre-war years was running and providing the necessary backbone for a flourishing American traditional economy.

The difference between the U.S. And the U.S.S.R. however were obvious in terms of the way in which the two sides viewed economic development and post- war reconstruction. The U.S. saw it thru a social oriented approach, whereas the U.S.S.R. saw it socially thru a communist one. These two economic approaches however triggered differences in terms of political stands as well. More precisely, the U.S. was a functional democracy, with its ups and downs, whereas the U.S.S.R. was a traditional communist country, with considerations for extremist approaches such as the bad treatment of minorities (the Jews would later on be considered as plagues on the Russian territories, similar to the treatment offered by the Germans during Hitler's rule).

This difference in line of thought was considered at the time by the American administration to represent a threat to the well being of the American means of survival or development. It is not the scope of the current research to focus on the reasons for which this approach was considered to be a threat at the national security of the United States. Suffice to say however that there was a real concern at the highest level of the American Administrations that the communist line of thought, rule, and influence would not be expanded on the North American continent or South America. It was seen as a plague and, after the Second World War, further more impressive actions would be taken in order to ensure a limited influence of the communist ideology in the region and the world.

Given the considerations above, it was deemed necessary by the American administrations that action must be taken in order to secure a safe haven from the communist threat. In this sense, the U.S. Army's Signal Intelligence Service designed a secret program in February 1943. It was called the Venona project and it was "a highly restricted program whereby U.S. codebreakers were able to read some Soviet intelligence cables between New York and Moscow intercepted during World War II."

This program was particularly designed to gather the necessary information that would allow the American system to be one step in front of the Soviet line of tactics. Indeed, this program was created after the beginning of the Second World War and as a result of the massive disruptions that the U.S. saw the U.S.S.R. capable of. The rational behind the program was that the gathering of information can only benefit the U.S. As it would have at its disposal the necessary information to prevent any unfortunate event from the part of the U.S.S.R.

One aspect that must be pointed out is the fact that prior to the start of the Second World War, the United States, although vigilant, failed to consider the threat of the U.S.S.R. As being a serious concern at the address of national security. This is to say that, at that point in time, both the American president Roosevelt as well as president Stalin had little if any confidence in each other, yet there was a sense of political respect that did not allow either of them to officially suspect one another thru espionage activities. The Yalta Conference actually makes it possible for someone to gain a more complex understanding concerning feelings between the Soviets and the West. Both sides had received intelligence information prior to the event and were prepared to take on diplomatic attitudes with the purpose of achieving their goals. "While many, including Alger Hiss, have praised Stalin's negotiating skills at Yalta, and while Stalin may indeed have had good negotiation abilities, he also was able to rely on the vast amount of intelligence he was receiving about the American and British negotiating positions."

The prescription of the acts allowed certain aspects to come to light and have proven that the espionage activities during the pre-war period and especially during the Second World War were rather dynamic from both sides. The Russian system of espionage had specific people placed in the American administration that allowed the U.S.S.R. access to information related to military, economic, social, scientific decisions during this time. The American Presidential Administration had apparently received information with regard to how Hiss posed a great deal of risk as early as 1939. "It is at least plausible to assume that Lauchlin Currie, a White House staffer, identified as a Soviet asset in the Venona cables, may have intercepted Berle's memo claiming Hiss was a Soviet agent."

Shelton proceeds with emphasizing how most influential players associated with Hiss were not acquainted with the probability that Hiss was a spy or that he was cooperating with the Soviets. This is most probably the writer's attempt to criticize persons who were unable to identify a series of incriminating evidence associated with Hiss, as she practically relates to these people as being too blind to observe evidence that was right in front of them.

In this context, the role of Alger Hiss was important because it showed the vulnerability of the United States system as well as the American judicial system. He was accused of perjury but would later be proven guilty, although not in court, of espionage against the United States.

The case of Alger Hiss is not necessarily the most important one in American history of espionage, the examples of the American president's close friends as part of the Soviet espionage (and here reference is made to Michel Straight) are more significant largely due to the high degree of confidential information they had access to. It is important however because it revealed the complexity of the judicial system as well as that of the intelligence structure.

Hiss was by no means an ordinary man. Since his early beginnings, he proved to be an above average individual. "From the 1920s to the 1940s, Hiss gave the impression of good breeding and wealth, when he really used his talents to successfully develop this persona while networking with prominent upper-class people he came into contact with during his years at Hopkins and Harvard Law, then his Supreme Court clerkship."

Later in his career he managed to occupy important positions from a political standpoint, as well as in terms of influence and access to information. In this sense, he acted as "executive secretary of the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held in Washington, D.C. (August -- October 1944), to formulate plans for the organization of the United Nations."

These positions were not essential from the point-of-view of the name but rather for the degree of confidentiality they triggered. More precisely, the Yalta Conference implied access to information related to shaping of the world after the end of the world, whereas the UN founding convention had a great impact on how the U.S.S.R. As well as the United States would later use this world body to share the pressure points of the sphere of influence during the Cold War.

The case that revealed Alger Hiss's duality and therefore adherence to the U.S.S.R. intelligence service was started by a man named Whittaker Chambers, who, up until the moment of his quest against Hiss had been a convinced Communist Party supporter

. Shelton goes at examining persons who had a strong influence of Hiss's personality and behavior. Chambers's ability to develop a close relationship with Hiss and his handling of Soviet relations with Hiss played an important role in Hiss' overall decision to betray his country.

The case of Chambers was not singular in the United States. There had been a lot of supporters of the Communist and even Nazi Party during the pre-war period. However, after the events that took place after the start of the war and the actions that were directed against the Jewish and the Polish during the Nazi rule, a lot of adherents came against the Soviet line of thinking and rebelled against other Communist adherents. The fact that Shelton associates Communism with Nazism is especially intriguing when considering her ability to have readers look at the two ideologies from the same perspective. This actually enables readers understand that the two political schools of thought are not as opposite as they seem, considering that they promote similar values and that they are responsible for a great deal of suffering that the modern society experienced.

Chambers was one of those persons. He addressed the issue of Alger Hiss as part of the Soviet intelligence unit before the UN conference in San Francisco. Given the fact that he failed to provide the substantial information to Berle, from the Attorney General Office, Alger Hiss completely denied any accusations related to these facts. This allowed him to fully attend the UN conference and benefit from the full support of the U.S. administration and further access to confidential information. The reputation of Hiss was further put to test when he was appointed head of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a think-tank that provided scholarly information and advice to decision makers in the United States. The position was one of the most important in the academic world as it managed to provide the necessary advice under the cover of non-governmental and un-biased advice.

The entire case behind the conviction of Alger Hiss revolved around the issue that from the very beginning Hiss had denied any allegiance to the Communist party, doctrine, or members. After the start of Chambers' allegations against Hiss, the latter fully denied any connection. Chambers' decision to inform Berle with regard to Hiss' activities represents one of the principal reasons why the Soviet spy was eventually unmasked. "After the meeting, Berle typed his notes into a memo titled "Underground Espionage Agent" and this memo became a government exhibit at Hiss' second trial."

The answer from Hiss was of complete denial, which triggered afterwards the charges of perjury.

The case of Alger Hiss drew the attention not only in terms of the way in which the justice system functioned and the communication between the institutions functioned (the Attorney General institution and afterwards the Federal Bureau of Investigation) but it also revealed the relations with other parts of the political sphere. In this sense, Richard Nixon, who would later become the President of the U.S., who initially supported the claim that that the initiative to accuse Hiss of espionage was in fact related to a political oriented attack. Nixon was a key actor in unveiling Hiss' activities. "On December 1, Nixon and Stripling visited Chambers at his Maryland farm. When pressed by his two visitors, Chambers told them he had more evidence."

The case that was built by Chambers was rather strong in the sense that it provided sufficient information to at least consider Hiss of wrongful doing. However, the case did not prove sufficiently strong to ensure that Hiss would at lest get a doubt on his record. In this case, Chambers provided the Pumpkin Papers. "The famous designation "Pumpkin Papers" came to refer to all the hard evidence Chambers had sequestered, whereas it was actually only the microfilm that was hidden in a carved-out pumpkin."