Homelessness in the United States

Homelessness

IN the UNITED STATES and ITS INFLUENCE on CHILD DEVELOPMENT

People Without Homes

Points to Ponder

CONTRIBUTING CONSIDERATIONS

Snapshots of Homelessness

The Number of Homeless

Facts about homelessness in the United States

Homelessness Portrayed

Cutout Children

NATIONAL LAW CENTER on HOMELESSNESS & POVERTY

Sexual Abuse

Rural Homelessness

Homeless Children with Disabilities

In Their Own Words

Erik Erikson's Theory

Carol Gilligan

Grounded in Listening

More Factors Associated with Homelessness

Homelessness Devastating Impact

Recognizing Needs

Countering Causes

Do Something

Snapshot of Homeless Population in U.S.

Figure 2: Number of Homeless People in Each State

Figure 3: Manuel Hernandez

Figure 6: Waiting for the Shelter to Open

Figure 5: Life-size Cutout of Young Homeless Girl

Figure 6: Life-size Cutout of Young Homeless Boy

Table 1: Grid Depicting Erikson's Theory

Table 2: Erikson's Eight Psychosocial Crisis Stages

HOMELESSNESS

IN the UNITED STATES and ITS INFLUENCE on CHILD DEVELOPMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

People who are homeless are not social inadequates.

They are people without homes."

Sheila McKechnie, Director...Homeless (Simpson, 1998)

People Without Homes

When children are homeless, their basic needs such as food and shelter are unmet, while medical needs, mental health and life skills needs are limited. Available services for homeless individuals, according to Aviles & Helfrich (2004), "typically include housing, education, employment, and emergency health care while planning and support are not provided." To gain a lucid understanding of needs homeless youth experience, Aviles & Helfrich (2004) contend, youth's experiences and perceptions of homelessness need to be understood. The study by Aviles & Helfrich (2004) utilizes life history narratives which reveal how some youth perceive being homeless.

Purpose of this Study

This researcher's paper includes some perceptions youth reportedly possess, albeit, it also proposes to point out a number of other considerations, such as the one by McKechnie, that homeless people are not socially inadequate. Points Gilligan (2006) makes are also noted. Gilligan (2006) notes that when children are homeless, they experience: "isolation of the family, disruptions to schooling, shelter crowding, a loss of parental autonomy, and substandard living conditions." When homeless, the children, who are "people without homes" (Simpson, 1998), experience devastating impacts, personally and in their educational realm. Every time a child changes moves and changes schools, his/her education is disrupted. Homeless families traditionally move frequently. Some researchers estimate homeless children lose 3-6 months of education each time they move. (Institute for Children and Poverty, 2003, cited by Education of Homeless Children, 2008) the determination to write this paper evolved after this researcher's personal experiences volunteering to work with homeless individuals in shelters.

During this time, seeing children who did not have homes and some of the impacts homelessness has upon them strengthened this researcher's resolve to develop a paper that reiterates a story already told many times, but one that needs to again be told and heard.

Points to Ponder

Children and families make up the fastest growing segment of the homeless population. There are as many as 500,000 families in shelters nationwide and 1.35 million homeless children each year. (Homes for the Homeless: Reports and Statistics, 2006, cited by LOW-INCOME and HOMELESS CHILDREN, 2007)

The average age for a homeless child in the U.S. is 6 years. (Homes for the Homeless: Reports and Statistics, 2006, cited by LOW-INCOME and HOMELESS CHILDREN, 2007)

Poverty and lack of affordable housing are principal causes of homelessness in America. Declining wages and changes in welfare programs contribute to many families becoming poor. Combined with skyrocketing Fair Market Values across the United States, especially in large cities such as DC, suitable housing has been placed out of reach for many families. (National Coalition for the Homeless: Homeless Families with Children, June 2006, cited by LOW-INCOME and HOMELESS CHILDREN, 2007)

Nan Roman, president of the National Alliance to End Homelessness, stresses: "The driver in homelessness is the affordable housing crisis. If we don't do something to address the crisis in affordable housing we are not going to solve homelessness." (Study, 2007) One particular estimate by Schreuders, Salmon & Stewardson (2007) particularly troubles this researcher. According to these authors, during 2004, approximately 1,365,000 children in the United States were as McKechnie (Simpson, 1998) purports, "people without homes."

During the next segment of this study, this researcher presents some poignant portraits of the children.

II. CONTRIBUTING CONSIDERATIONS

And homeless near a thousand homes I stood,

And near a thousand tables pined and wanted food." www.bartleby.com/100/337.html" William Wordsworth (1770-1850) (Bartlett, 2000)

Snapshots" of Homelessness

During the '50s, a "snapshot" feature published in USA Today listed the five primary concerns parents and teachers reported regarding children:

talking out of turn, chewing gum in class, doing homework, stepping out of line, cleaning their a rooms. (Columbia, 1996)

Approximately 50 years later, the list was updated and expanded to eight, while it related contemporary concerns for children to include:

drug addiction, teenage pregnancy, suicide and homicide, gang violence, anorexia and bulimia.

AIDS, poverty, and homelessness.... (Columbia, 1996)

The Number of Homeless

During 2005, according to the first national estimate in a decade, the number of known homeless people in the United States totaled 744,000 in 2005, according to the first national estimate in a decade. Most homeless people are single adults, however approximately 41% were in families. This study, however serves only as a baseline as "counting people without permanent addresses, especially those living on the street, is an inexact process." (Study, 2007) Another report, for example, states: "During 2004, the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty (2004) reported that this during 2003, more than 3.5 million Americans were homeless." (Schreuders, Salmon & Stewardson, 2007)

During 1996, a study by the Department of Housing and Urban Development from service providers throughout the United States, estimated the number of homeless individuals ranged between 444,000 and 842,000. (Study, 2007) little more than half the homeless individual noted by the 1996 Department of Housing and Urban Development study were living in shelters. Approximately one fourth of these individuals were chronically homeless, according to the report by the National Alliance to End Homelessness, an advocacy group. (Study, 2007) a majority of the homeless were single adults, but about 41% were in families, the report said. Estimated numbers of homeless people are reflected in the following article excerpt:

The best approximation is from a study done by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty which states that approximately 3.5 million people, 1.35 million of them children, are likely to experience homelessness in a given year (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 2007). These numbers, based on findings from the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, Urban Institute and specifically the National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers, draw their estimates from a study of service providers across the country at two different times of the year in 1996. They found that, on a given night in October, 444,000 people (in 346,000households) experienced homelessness - which translates to 6.3% of the population of people living in poverty. On a given night in February, 842,000 (in 637,000 households) experienced homelessness - which translates to almost 10% of the population of people living in poverty. Converting these estimates into an annual projection, the numbers that emerge are 2.3 million people (based on the October estimate) and 3.5 million people (based on the February estimate). This translates to approximately 1% of the U.S. population experiencing homelessness each year, 38% (October) to 39% (February) of them being children (Urban Institute 2000). It is also important to note that this study was based on a national survey of service providers. Since not all people experiencing homelessness utilize service providers, the actual numbers of people experiencing homelessness are likely higher than those found in the study, Thus, we are estimating on the high end of the study's numbers: 3.5 million people, 39% of which are children. (Schreuders, Salmon & Stewardson, 2007)

Presenting an accurate "snapshot" of the number of homeless people proves difficult due to the fluidity of the homeless population. Another part of the challenge for accurate measurements stems for varying methodologies used to measure homelessness. "Some researchers attempt to count all the people who are literally homeless on a given day or during a given week, called a "point-in-time" count. Critics say this method is likely to overestimate the number of chronically homeless and underestimate the number of people who experience temporary homelessness." (Homeless Facts, 2007) One other method for trying to count the number of homeless people involves examining the number of people reportedly homeless during a particular period of time, also called a "period prevalence" count. Challenges involving standardizing measurements counter this method. Including the duration of counting and time of year of counting also affect components considered in measuring homeless rates. (Homeless Facts, 2007)

The following figure portrays pictures of homeless people in the United States

Figure 1: Snapshot of Homeless Population in U.S. (POVERTY & HOMELESSNESS, 2007)

Facts about homelessness in the United States

What is the definition of homelessness?

Different definitions of homelessness are used in different contexts. Generally, homelessness is defined as a person who "lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate night-time residence."

How many people are homeless?

The number of homeless is difficult to ascertain because estimates vary depending on the methodology used. Numbers also vary substantially depending on whether a measurement is taken on a single night or is extrapolated to a given year.

One approximation of the annual number of homeless in America is from a study done by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, which estimates between 2.3 and 3.5 million people experience homelessness. According to a study released this month by the National Alliance to End Homelessness, an estimated 744,313 people experienced homelessness in one night in January 2005. Some 56% of them were living in shelters and transitional housing and, 44% were unsheltered.

Which states have the most homelessness people?

Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington State, and Washington, D.C. have the highest rates of homelessness, according to a study released in 2007 by the National Alliance to End Homelessness.

How many of the homeless are children?

In this year's National Alliance to End Homelessness study, 59% of homeless people counted were single adults and 41% were persons living in families. A total of 98,452 homeless families were counted.

Another estimate comes from 1996 data commissioned by the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness. It says that while most homeless are unaccompanied adults, the number of homeless families is growing:

66% are single adults, and of these, three-quarters are men

11% are parents with children, 84% of whom are single women

23% are children under 18 with a parent, 42% of whom are under 5 years of age

What is chronic homelessness?

According to the study previously noted, 23% of homeless people were reported as chronically homeless. According to HUD's definition, a person who is "chronically homeless" is an unaccompanied homeless individual with a disabling condition (e.g., substance abuse, serious mental illness, developmental disability, or chronic physical illness) who has either been continuously homeless for a year or more, or has had at least four episodes of homelessness in the past three years. In order to be considered chronically homeless, a person must have been sleeping in a place not meant for human habitation and/or in an emergency homeless shelter.

What are the greatest causes of homelessness?

Homelessness may be caused by a variety of factors, but the coincidence of increased levels of poverty and decreased numbers of affordable housing often to blame. Other notable causes may include:

Lack of healthcare

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2004 nearly a third of persons living in poverty had no health insurance of any kind. The coverage held by many others would not carry them through a catastrophic illness.

Domestic violence

In 2005, 50% of the cities surveyed by the U.S. Conference of Mayors identified domestic violence as a primary cause of homelessness.

Mental illness

Many mentally ill homeless people are unable to obtain access to supportive housing and/or other treatment services. A 2005 U.S. Conference of Mayors study found that about 22% of the single adult homeless population suffers from some form of severe and persistent mental illness.

Substance Abuse

While recent research questions the disproportionately high rates of alcohol and drug abuse among the homeless population, and no agreed-upon statistics exist, poor people who abuse substances are far more likely to experience homelessness than their sober counterparts.

Are veterans more likely than other populations to be homeless?

Yes. About 40% of homeless men are veterans, although veterans comprise only 34% of the general adult male population. The National Coalition for Homeless estimates that on any given night, 200,000 veterans are homeless.

What are some other demographics of homeless people?*

Racial and ethnic minorities, particularly African-Americans, are overrepresented

41% are non-Hispanic whites (compared to 76% of the general population)

40% are African-Americans (compared to 11% of the general population)

11% are Hispanic (compared to 9% of the general population)

8% are Native American (compared to 1% of the general population)

Homelessness continues to be a largely urban phenomenon:

71% are in central cities

21% are in suburbs

9% are in rural areas

People who are homeless frequently report health problems:

38% report alcohol use problems

26% report other drug use problems

39% report some form of mental health problems (20-25% meet criteria for serious mental illness)

66% report either substance use and/or mental health problems

3% report having HIV / AIDS

26% report acute health problems other than HIV / AIDS such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, or sexually transmitted diseases

46% report chronic health conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or cancer

Figures based on 1996 data from Samhsha's National Mental Health Information Center.

What legislation exists that addresses homelessness?

The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act was the first -- and remains the only -- major federal legislative response to homelessness. President Ronald Reagan signed the act into law in 1987.

Although the Act has undergone many changes since its inception, it resulted in several programs that have helped hundreds of thousands of Americans regain stability through emergency shelter, transitional housing, job training, primary health care, education, and some permanent housing. However, critics claim the greatest weakness of the Act is that it responds to the symptoms of homelessness more than its causes. (Homeless Facts, 2007)

Figure 2: Number of Homeless People in Each State (Homeless Facts, 2007)

Homelessness Portrayed

The following figure (1) portrays Manuel Hernandez in homeless encampment under a California freeway on November 10, 2007.

Figure 3: Manuel Hernandez (photo by Gary Kazanjian, Study, 2007)

The following figure shows a number of families with children sitting in a sidewalk in one of LA's skid row areas - waiting for the shelters to open.

Figure 4: Waiting for the Shelter to Open (Mediha Fejzagic DiMartino/Staff Photographer) in (Secret Homeless, 2008)

Cutout Children on May 11, 2007, during the morning hours, life-size cutouts of children pleading for help with domestic issues such as violence and homelessness were set up along sidewalks encircling the shopping district to highlight King County's growing number of homeless children. At last count, the number in this area totaled 800. Family Services, a non-profit agency hoped that after seeing the cutouts and the message, people passing by would their Web site to obtain information on how to help these children. ("Cutouts Left Out," 2007) the following two figures (4 & 5) represent two of the cutout children on display that day.

Figure 5: Life-size Cutout of Young Homeless Girl ("Cutouts Left Out," 2007)

Figure 6: Life-size Cutout of Young Homeless Boy ("Cutouts Left Out," 2007)

Andy Rogers, the photographer posting the portrayals of cutout children states that when he accepted the assignment, "I was expecting the cutouts to be much more abstract. Upon arriving downtown, I was a bit disconcerted to see what looked from a block away like small children standing by themselves on street corners." ("Cutouts Left Out," 2007) Stromberg (2006) cites Nan Roman, president of the National Alliance to End Homelessness, to purport that housing affordability, or perhaps, its un-affordability constitutes the primary driver for children being homeless. Issues with their age contribute to homelessness of children, as they are not old enough to sign a lease. (Stromberg, 2006)

NATIONAL LAW CENTER on HOMELESSNESS & POVERTY (2003) Determining Homelessness by the Definition

Experience has shown that, despite its specificity, the McKinney-Vento Act's definition of homelessness leaves us with some gray areas. State Coordinators, liaisons and others need a process to resolve those gray areas. This document suggests some potential elements of such a process.

The McKinney-Vento Act's definition of "homeless children and youths" provides the following general framework: individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. The law then lists several situations which fit within that framework. This list is not exclusive; rather, it is meant to address some of the more common situations of homelessness. Migrant children who are living in one of the described situations are also considered homeless under the Act.

It cannot be emphasized enough that determining whether a particular child or youth fits the definition of homeless is a case-specific inquiry. General answers based on incomplete information or hypothetical situations will often be legally incorrect.

STEP 1

Is the child or youth covered by subparagraph (B)(i) of the definition?

Sharing the housing of other persons due to loss of housing, economic hardship, or a similar reason;

Living in motels, hotels, trailer parks, or camping grounds due to the lack of alternative adequate accommodations;

Living in emergency or transitional shelters;

Abandoned in hospitals; or Awaiting foster care placement.

If yes, apply the McKinney-Vento Act.

If no, go to Step 2.

If unclear, see if Step 4 can help, and/or seek advice from your attorney, the U.S. Department of Education, your peers, or other appropriate individuals.

To further define "awaiting foster care placement," collaborate with child welfare officials, attorneys and other community members to establish guidelines.

STEP 2

Is the child or youth covered by subparagraph (B)(ii) of the definition?

Has a primary nighttime residence that is a public or private place not designed for or ordinarily used as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings.

If yes, apply the McKinney-Vento Act.

If no, go to Step 3.

If unclear, see if Step 4 can help, and/or seek advice from your attorney, the U.S. Department of Education, your peers, or other appropriate individuals.

STEP 3

Is the child or youth covered by subparagraph (B)(iii) of the definition?

Living in a car, park, public space, abandoned building, substandard housing, bus or train station, or similar setting.

If yes, apply the McKinney-Vento Act.

If no, go to Step 4.

If unclear, see if Step 4 can help, and/or seek advice from your attorney, the U.S. Department of Education, your peers, or other appropriate individuals.

To further define "substandard housing," collaborate with attorneys and other community members to establish guidelines sensitive to community standards and cultural norms.

STEP 4

Does the child or youth lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence?

If yes, apply the McKinney-Vento Act.

If no, don't apply the McKinney-Vento Act.

If unclear, see if the definitions below can help, and/or seek advice from your attorney, the U.S. Department of Education, your peers, or other appropriate individuals.

A a)

FIXED [2]

Securely placed or fastened.

Not subject to change or fluctuation.

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition) fixed residence is one that is stationary, permanent, and not subject to change. (e.g. Arizona, Massachusetts and Michigan McKinney-Vento State Plans, 2002) b)

REGULAR [3]

Normal, standard.

Constituted, conducted, or done in conformity with established or prescribed usages, rules, or discipline.

Recurring, attending, or functioning at fixed or uniform intervals.

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition)

Consistent.

Ballentine's Law Dictionary, 3rd Edition) regular residence is one which is used on a regular (i.e., nightly) basis. (e.g. Arizona, Massachusetts and Michigan McKinney-Vento State Plans, 2002) c)

ADEQUATE

Sufficient for a specific requirement.

Lawfully and reasonably sufficient.

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition)

Fully sufficient; equal to what is required; lawfully and reasonably sufficient.

Ballentine's Law Dictionary, 3rd Edition)

An adequate residence is one that is sufficient for meeting both the physical and psychological needs typically met in home environments. (e.g. Arizona, Massachusetts and Michigan McKinney-Vento State Plans, 2002)

The McKinney-Vento Act

42 U.S.C. 11431 et seq.

SEC. 725. DEFINITIONS.

2) the term 'homeless children and youths'

A) means individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence (within the meaning of section 103(a)(1)); and B) includes-- i) children and youths who are sharing the housing of other persons due to loss of housing, economic hardship, or a similar reason; are living in motels, hotels, trailer parks, or camping grounds due to the lack of alternative adequate accommodations; are living in emergency or transitional shelters; are abandoned in hospitals; or are awaiting foster care placement;

ii) children and youths who have a primary nighttime residence that is a public or private place not designed for or ordinarily used as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings (within the meaning of section 103(a)(2)-);

iii) children and youths who are living in cars, parks, public spaces, abandoned buildings, substandard housing, bus or train stations, or similar settings; and iv) migratory children (as such term is defined in section 1309 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965) who qualify as homeless for the purposes of this subtitle because the children are living in circumstances described in clauses (i) through (iii)."

[1] Drafted by the National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty, March 2003. Address questions/comments to Patricia Julianelle, at. This information is not offered as legal advice and should not be used as a substitute for seeking professional legal advice. It does not create an attorney-client relationship with you.

[2] Other informative definitions include:

Inhabitant --One, who, although he may not be a citizen, dwells or resides in a place permanently, or has a fixed residence therein, as distinguished from an occasional lodger or visitor.

Dwell --to inhabit; to reside; to have a fixed place of residence.

Domicil -- the place where a person has his true fixed permanent home and principal establishment, and to which place he has, whenever he is absent, the intention of returning, and from which he has no present intention of moving. (Nataional Law, 2003)

Sexual Abuse www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Johnson+Regina+Jones%22Johnson, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Rew+Lynn%22Rew, Lynn and www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kouzekanani+Kamiar%22Kouzekanani (2006) note that most information regarding sexual abuse evolves from efforts to examine female children who have been victimized by men. Some researchers, albeit, identify similarities between male and female sexual abuse victims.

In their study, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Johnson+Regina+Jones%22Johnson, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Rew+Lynn%22Rew, Lynn and www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kouzekanani+Kamiar%22Kouzekanani (2006) explore "how gender and history of sexual abuse influence cognitive-perceptual and behavioral factors associated with sexual health practices of homeless adolescents." These researchers completed a secondary analysis of data collected for a cross-sectional study of homeless adolescents' sexual health practices. Participants included a "sample of 414 youths (104 males who reported sexual abuse and 124 who did not; and 95 females who reported sexual abuse and 75 who did not; 16 did not provide these data)." (www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Johnson+Regina+Jones%22Johnson, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Rew+Lynn%22Rew, Lynn and www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kouzekanani+Kamiar%22Kouzekanani, 2006) This study found that in regard to sexual health practices, male and female abuse victims differ in their cognitive-perceptual and behavioral factors. The authors stress the need for interventions to be developed in this area, along with early identification of sexually abused youth. "Effective short-term interventions are needed, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Johnson+Regina+Jones%22Johnson, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Rew+Lynn%22Rew, Lynn and www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kouzekanani+Kamiar%22Kouzekanani (2006) argue, "for the adolescent victims of Child Sexual Abuse (CSA), particularly those who are homeless and prone to further sexual victimization."

Rural Homelessness Cloke, Johnsen, and May (2007) report that in the past, due to the overwhelming assumptions regarding the urban-centeredness of homeless people and their needs,.homeless individuals in rural areas did not receive much recognition. These authors add to contemporary research starting to expose a number of problems and characteristics rural homelessness individuals experience. Cloke, Johnsen, and May (2007) suggest two significant dynamics which, when combined, can shape the experience of different groups of homeless people in rural environments. According to Cloke, Johnsen, and May (2007) rural locations reflect "particular local qualities which contextualize both the circumstances of homelessness and the provision of services in response to those circumstances. Secondly, the contemporary governance of homelessness unfolds rather unevenly in different rural areas, producing distinct local service environments with varying degrees of 'insider' and 'outsider' status in relation to joined-up responses to the needs of homeless people."

Three case studies, the authors posit, articulate these dynamics:

remote friary in a deep rural area of southern England;

small hostel run by a vibrant non-statutory organization in a small town in the west of England, and two advice centers in a coastal resort in the north-east of England. (Cloke, Johnsen, & May, 2007)

Through the case studies Cloke, Johnsen, and May (2007 highlight the merit of both local reactions to the homeless other. The authors also note "local relations between central government funding, local authority initiatives and charitable organizations, in the production and consumption of spaces of care in settings set in, or serving, rural environments."

Homeless Children with Disabilities

The publication "School Help for Homeless Children with Disabilities: Information for Parents Families," (2007) notes that dealing with homelessness experience challenges with enrolling their children in school and ensuring their daily attendance. According to this report, "the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act gives homeless children and youth the right to enroll in school immediately, even if they do not have documents that are usually required for enrollment. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) guarantees rights and services for children and youth with special needs." Information about IDEA and how it can help homeless children with special needs is also included in this report designed for parents, guardians, and other people who are taking care of children and youth.

In Their Own Words

Homeless students may fear that, without nice new clothes or well-stocked backpacks, they will not be accepted by their peers or, worse, will be targets of ridicule. More important, homeless students are almost certain to be at a disadvantage when it comes to doing the required schoolwork." ("In Their Own Words," 2007)

According to the publication, many homeless children have extra challenges to complete their homework as they do not cannot access to home libraries or Internet-accessible computers. When they do not have the necessary supplies, homeless children may experience difficulty completing in-class assignments. (Vissing, "In Their Own Words: Schools and Students Overcoming Adversity," (2007) 2003, p. 321, cited by "In Their Own Words," 2007)

Sometimes, children become homeless, as in the case of Hurricane Katrina, due to a "natural" disaster. "In Their Own Words: Schools and Students Overcoming Adversity," (2007) recounts "voices of the students and the school, district and relief agency staff who were closest to the challenges that resulted from the hurricane." Hurricane Katrina left 527,000 people homeless.

Information in this report was collected from February to May 2006 via telephone interviews and e-mail surveys of 32 individuals in eight school districts in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. Those interviewed were comprised of school district homeless education liaisons, school administrators, relief agency staff, school counselors, and students. The report begins with the experiences of the district homeless liaisons who were the primary architects of school districts' overall responses to Hurricane Katrina. The experiences of school administrators, relief agencies and school counselors -- those who provided strong leadership, immediate basic services and vital mental health support -- then follow. The report concludes with students' experiences, because they were, and continue to be, the purpose of the work of the other interviewees. ("In Their Own Words," 2007)

One quote from, "In Their Own Words: Schools and Students Overcoming Adversity," (2007) this researcher contends states what needs to be understood, that in regard to homelessness, "a lot of honest talks" need to be initiated. "If we really want to help these children, then what we really need to do is see this thing from the eyes of the children and their parents. And if we look at it from their eyes, then we can better serve them." Those working in the East Baton Rouge Parish School System in Baton Rouge, Louisiana made appoint to talk honestly about the situation; to sensitize the school staff to understand and see it through the homeless children's eyes.

Erik Erikson's Theory

Erik Erikson reportedly possessed a strong interest and compassion for people, particularly young people. He carried out research among human societies, removed from the primarily inner searching world of the psychoanalyst's couch, essentially Freud's approach. From a number of various perspectives, for understanding and explaining how personality and behaviour develops in people, Erikson's eight stages theory proves to be a powerful model. It is also extremely accessible and noticeably relevant to contemporary life. "As such Erikson's theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others." (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997)

Erikson perceived his concept of human development as an evolving work in progress. A number of individuals have developed various interpretations of Erik Erikson's Theory (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997), as noted in the following grid, table 1:

Table 1: Grid Depicting Erikson's Theory (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997)

Erikson's psychosocial crisis stages

(syntonic v dystonic)

Freudian psycho- sexual stages life stage / relationships / issues basic virtue and second named strength (potential positive outcomes from each crisis) maladaptation / malignancy (potential negative outcome - one or the other - from unhelpful experience during each crisis)

1. Trust v Mistrust

Oral infant / mother / feeding and being comforted, teething, sleeping

Hope and Drive

Sensory Distortion / Withdrawal

2. Autonomy v Shame & Doubt

Anal toddler / parents / bodily functions, toilet training, muscular control, walking

Willpower and Self-Control

Impulsivity / Compulsion

3. Initiative v Guilt

Phallic preschool / family / exploration and discovery, adventure and play

Purpose and Direction

Ruthlessness / Inhibition

4. Industry v Inferiority

Latency schoolchild / school, teachers, friends, neighbourhood / achievement and accomplishment

Competence and Method

Narrow Virtuosity / Inertia

5. Identity v Role Confusion

Puberty and Genitality adolescent / peers, groups, influences / resolving identity and direction, becoming a grown-up

Fidelity and Devotion

Fanaticism / Repudiation

6. Intimacy v Isolation

Genitality) young adult / lovers, friends, work connections / intimate relationships, work and social life

Love and Affiliation

Promiscuity / Exclusivity

7. Generativity v Stagnation mid-adult / children, community / 'giving back', helping, contributing

Care and Production

Overextension / Rejectivity

8. Integrity v Despair late adult / society, the world, life / meaning and purpose, life achievements

Wisdom and Renunciation

Presumption / Disdain

Erikson's psychosocial theory basically asserts that people experience eight 'psychosocial crisis stages' which significantly affect each person's development and personality." (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997) Joan Erikson, Erickson's wife, identified a 'ninth' stage after Erik's death, albeit, the eight stage model is most commonly referenced and deemed as the standard. Each stage of Erikson's eight stages involves a crisis between two conflicting emotional forces.

A helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing forces is "contrary dispositions." Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the words 'syntonic' for the first-listed 'positive' disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and "dystonic" for the second-listed "negative" disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions Erikson connected them with the word "versus," which he abbreviated to 'v'. (Versus is Latin, meaning turned towards or against.) the actual definitions of the syntonic and dystonic words...are mainly irrelevant unless you have a passion for the detailed history of Erikson's ideas.

Successfully passing through each crisis involves "achieving" a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis. For example a healthy balance at crisis stage one (Trust v Mistrust) might be described as experiencing and growing through the crisis 'Trust' (of people, life and one's future development) and also experiencing and growing a suitable capacity for 'Mistrust' where appropriate, so as not to be hopelessly unrealistic or gullible, nor to be mistrustful of everything. Or experiencing and growing through stage two (Autonomy v Shame & Doubt) to be essentially 'Autonomous' (to be one's own person and not a mindless or quivering follower) but to have sufficient capacity for 'Shame and Doubt', so as to be free-thinking and independent, while also being ethical and considerate and responsible, etc.

Erikson called these successful balanced outcomes "Basic Virtues" or "Basic Strengths." He identified one particular word to represent the fundamental strength gained at each stage, which appear commonly in Erikson's diagrams and written theory, and other explanations of his work. Erikson also identified a second supporting 'strength' word at each stage, which along with the basic virtue emphasised the main healthy outcome at each stage, and helped convey simple meaning in summaries and charts. Examples of basic virtues and supporting strengths words are 'Hope and Drive' (from stage one, Trust v Mistrust) and 'Willpower and Self-Control' (from stage two, Autonomy v Shame & Doubt). it's very useful however to gain a more detailed understanding of the meaning behind these words because although Erikson's choice these words is very clever, and the words are very symbolic, using just one or two words alone is not adequate for truly conveying the depth of the theory, and particularly the emotional and behavioural strengths that arise from healthy progression through each crisis. More detail about basic virtues and strengths is in the Basic Virtues section.

Erikson was sparing in his use of the word 'achieve' in the context of successful outcomes, because it implied gaining something clear-cut and permanent. Psychosocial development is not clear-cut and is not irreversible: any previous crisis can effectively revisit anyone, albeit in a different guise, with successful or unsuccessful results. This perhaps helps explain how 'high achievers' can fall from grace, and how 'hopeless failures' can ultimately achieve great things. No-one should become complacent, and there is hope for us all.

Later in his life Erikson was keen to warn against interpreting his theory into an "achievement scale," in which the crisis stages represent single safe achievement or target of the extreme 'positive' option, secured once and for ever. Erikson said (in Identity and the Life Cycle):

What the child acquires at a given stage is a certain ratio between the positive and negative, which if the balance is toward the positive, will help him to meet later crises with a better chance for unimpaired total development..."

He continued (in rather complicated language, hence paraphrasing) that at no stage can a 'goodness' be achieved which is impervious to new conflicts, and that to believe so is dangerous and inept. (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997)

The following table (2) depicts Erikson's eight psychosocial crisis stages.

Table 2: Erikson's Eight Psychosocial Crisis Stages (Erik and Joan Erikson, 1997)

Psychosocial Crisis Stage

Life Stage age range, other descriptions

1. Trust v Mistrust

Infancy

0-11/2 yrs, baby, birth to walking

2. Autonomy v Shame and Doubt

Early Childhood

1-3 yrs, toddler, toilet training

3. Initiative v Guilt

Play Age

3-6 yrs, pre-school, nursery

4. Industry v Inferiority

School Age

5-12 yrs, early school

5. Identity v Role Confusion

Adolescence

9-18 yrs, puberty, teens*

6. Intimacy v Isolation

Young Adult

18-40, courting, early parenthood

7. Generativity v Stagnation

Adulthood

30-65, middle age, parenting

8. Integrity v Despair

Mature Age

50+, old age, grandparents

The following table (3) portrays another perception of Erikson's eight psychosocial crisis stages.

Table 2: Summary Chart of Erikson's Eight Psychosocial Crisis Stages (Cramer, Flynn & LaFave, 1997)

Stage

Ages

Basic

Conflict

Important

Event

Summary

Oral-Sensory

Birth to 12 to 18 months

Trust vs. Mistrust

Feeding

The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust.

Muscular-Anal

18 months to 3 years

Autonomy vs.

Shame/Doubt

Toilet training

The child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well.

Locomotor to 6 years

Initiatives vs.

Guilt

Independence

The child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings.

Latency to 12 years

Industry vs. Inferiority

The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure and incompetence.

6. Young Adulthood

19 to 40 years

Intimacy vs.

Isolation

Love relationships

The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation.

Some critics of Erikson's theory argue that his theory applies more to boys than to girls, and that despite the claim to be a life-span theory, Erikson invests more attention to infancy and childhood than to adult life. Others, nevertheless, find Erikson's theory proffers a useful framework to analyze developmental histories. "Another controversial aspect of Erikson's work is his agreement with Freud that personality differences between sexes are biologically based, originating in the possession or lack of a penis. Erikson based his conclusion on research with children in a study in which boys and girls from age 10 to 12 constructed various scenes with toy figures and wooden blocks." (Cramer, Flynn & LaFave, 1997) Instead of parental social class standing or physical symptoms serving as significant predictors of Erikson's model, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Westermeyer+Jerry+F.%22Westermeyer (2004) argues, young adult social relationships exert a greater impact. www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Westermeyer+Jerry+F.%22Westermeyer, (2004) reports findings from the study utilizing Erikson's life cycle model, using the Vaillant and Milofsky (1980, cited by www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Westermeyer+Jerry+F.%22Westermeyer, 2004) modification of Erikson's model, from the study of 86 men, initially selected for health, prospectively studied at age 21, and reassessed 32 years later at age 53, 48 men (56%) achieved generativity at follow-up. Generativity constitutes an advanced developmental stage.

Results from www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Westermeyer+Jerry+F.%22Westermeyer's (2004) study basically support Erikson's model. Findings confirm generativity to be "significantly associated with successful marriage, work achievements, close friendships, altruistic behaviors, and overall mental health. Successful young adult predictors of Erikson's model at midlife included a warm family environment, an absence of troubled parental discipline, a mentor relationship, and, most importantly, favorable peer group relationships."

Carol Gilligan

Educational approaches based on [Carol] Gilligan's work have emphasized efforts to foster empathy and care responses in students." (Nucci, 2007) "mailto: "Nucci (2007) reports that in Gilligan, book, in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (1982), Gilligan suggests that Kohlberg's theories "are biased against women, as only males were used in his studies." (Nucci, 2007) Gilligan makes a point to listen to women's experiences, and purports that a morality of care can serve in the place of the morality of justice and rights Kohlberg espouses. Gilligan perceives the morality of caring and responsibility is positioned in nonviolence, while the morality of justice and rights, on the other hand, evolves from equality. One more way to consider these differences is to view the two moralities as proffering two distinct injunctions:

the injunction not to treat others unfairly (justice) and the injunction not to turn away from someone in need (care).

Although they are potentially connected, Gilligan presents these moralities as distinct. In her initial work, Gilligan emphasizes the gender differences perceived as linked with these two orientations. "The morality of care emphasizes interconnectedness and presumably emerges to a greater degree in girls owing to their early connection in identity formation with their mothers. The morality of justice, on the other hand, is said to emerge within the context of coordinating the interactions of autonomous individuals." (Nucci, 2007)

Nucci (2007) reports that Gilligan proposes that moral orientation, founded on justice, was deemed as more prevalent among boys as their attachment relations with the mother, and ensuing masculine identity formation involved boys separating from that relationship and individuating from the mother. This separation for boys additionally heightens their awareness of variations in power relations between themselves and the adult. Consequently, this engenders an intense set of concerns over inequalities.

Because of their continued attachment to their mothers, albeit, girls are not as keenly aware of such inequalities. In turn, they are less concerned with fairness as an concern. Additional research suggests that moral reasoning does not adhere to the distinct gender lines Gilligan originally reported. "The preponderance of evidence is that both males and females reason based on justice and care. While this gender debate is unsettled, Gilligan's work has contributed to an increased awareness that care is an integral component of moral reasoning." (Nucci, 2007)

Carol Gilligan (Simson, 2005) reportedly challenges the traditional understanding of "rationality," as she argues that feminine thinking styles are no less rational than masculine ones. Gilligan accepts that women tend to think differently than men in a number of historically asserted ways, however, she denies that this tendency basically makes women less suited than men for intellectual work. (Simson, 2005) Gilligan (2006) stresses the value of women remaining "wedded" to truth, not conceding to what one knows to be false. "When the mind is forced to leave the body in the name of intelligence and for the sake of education, when thought becomes divorced from emotion as a way of avoiding conflict and trouble, when the self moves out of relationship in order to have 'relationships,' an honest voice -- the voice of the core self that registers experience -- comes to sound stupid. Thus we become wedded to what within ourselves we know is a false story." (Gilligan, 2006)

Gilligan (2006) contends a number of reasons contribute to homeless families potentially being "particularly susceptible to involvement with child welfare agencies, and why families involved with child welfare services might likewise be more likely to be admitted to homeless shelters."

In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, considered have started a revolution, women's voices are heard, "in their own right and with their own integrity, for virtually the first time in social scientific theorizing about women. Its impact was immediate and continues to this day, in the academic world and beyond." (Gilligan, 1993, book cover) This book, translated into sixteen languages, sold more than three-quarters of a million copies, also inspired new research, new educational initiatives, and political debate. It reportedly helped numerous women and men to see themselves and each other with fresh perspectives.

Carol Gilligan believes that psychology has persistently and systematically misunderstood women - their motives, their moral commitments, the course of their psychological growth, and their special view of what is important in life." (Gilligan, 1993)

In her book, in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, Gilligan aims to correct psychology's misperceptions and refocus its perception of female personality.

The following book review of in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, by Cypher (N.d), Notes on "In a Different Voice" by Carol Gilligan proposes a number of questions, regarding Gilligan's presentation.

How do people make decisions about morality?

Gilligan has found that men and women use fundamentally different approaches. And since men have dominated the discussion of moral theory, women's perspective is often not taken seriously, and is considered to be less developed and sophisticated.

Her findings are based on interviews.

The male approach to morality is that individuals have certain basic rights, and that you have to respect the rights of others. So morality imposes restrictions on what you can do.

The female approach to morality is that people have responsibilities towards others. So morality is an imperative to care for others. Gilligan summarizes this by saying that male morality has a "justice orientation," and that female morality has a "responsibility orientation."

She also outlines 3 stages in moral development. The first is a selfish stage, the second is a belief in conventional morality, and the third is post-conventional. This is a progression from selfish, to social, to principled morality. Female children start out with a selfish orientation.

They then learn to care for others, and that selfishness is wrong. So in their second, conventional, stage, women typically feel it is wrong to act in their own interests, and that they should value instead the interests of others. They equate concern for themselves with selfishness. In the third, post-conventional stage, they learn that it is just as wrong to ignore their own interests as it is to ignore the interests of others. One way to this understanding comes through their concern with connecting with others. A connection, or relation, involves two people, and if either one is slighted, it harms the relationship.