Imperial Spain 1469-1716 by J.H.

Imperial Spain 1469-1716 by J.H. Elliot (New York: Penguin, 2002)

Contemporary Spain is not one of the dominant European powers of the current European Union, politically or economically. Yet Spanish is spoken all over the world, and Spain's former influence as a world, colonial power continues to be felt, not simply, in Spanish-speaking Latin America, but in the United States. The very existence of the United States, at least partially, can be traced back to the European explorations funded by the Spanish king and queen Ferdinand and Isabella. How did a nation become so mighty, yet so quickly lose its influence, asks J.H. Elliot in his work on Imperial Spain 1469-1716? The book paints a portrait of Spain's meteoric rise and equally abrupt collapse during this period.

Spain's initial dominance comes as a revelation, not simply to a modern reader, but also took many contemporary observers by surprise, given Spain's poverty at the time. The rapid rise and fall of Spanish influence occurred during a relatively discrete period of time, thus the short frame of the temporal marking points of Elliot's text. Spain began the 15th century as a small, economically struggling, relatively obscure state and rose to a major colonial and imperial power. It did so, not because of inspiring, democratic, or humanistic ideals -- quite the opposite. It was a society characterized by intolerance, fanatical religion, autocratic rule, militarism, and inquisitorial justice. But it could not be ignored by the other European nations. Spain's power over the seas allowed it to control virtually the entire New World, spanning across the Americas, and it dominated the seas, famously, but also the land with its army. Part of its power lay in the fact that it had such a substantial gold supply to fund this army. "With its long seaboard and influential mercantile community," Spain was well placed, geographically and politically, to embark upon a quest for gold, as well as to undertake exploration for commodities like spices. (Elliot, p.57)

Another reason for Spain's rise can be traced to the powerful monarchy of Isabella and Ferdinand. "The wisdom of Isabella's choice soon became very apparent." (Elliot, p.22) These two devoutly Catholic monarchs solidified Spain under singular control by driving the Muslim Moors from the nation. They appealed to the "devout Catholicism" of the Christian populace, and "impresse[ed] upon them their divinely appointed mission" to free Spain of Moorish influence. (Elliot, p.32) This created an upsurge of positive "national" energy in support of Isabella and Ferdinand's cause. (Elliot, p.42) In this case, Elliot notes, the peace treaty between victors and vanquished was almost charitable. "The terms of surrender were relatively liberal. The Moors were left in possession of their arms and property. And were guaranteed in their use of laws and religion." (Elliot, p.49)

However, these two monarch's religious fervor did not only have positive effects upon Spain's development as a nation. As well as the far-seeking aspects of their reign, such as funding expeditions like Columbus' to the New World, they were also the architects of the infamous Spanish Inquisition, to create a "purity" of the faith. (Elliot, p.101) Elliot stresses that the effects of the Inquisition were both political and religious. Isabella was devotee of the Virgin Mary, and determined to create Catalonian ecclesiastical reforms that conformed to her belief system. Ferdinand wished to have more control over Aragon. The Inquisition created a reign of terror, but also had a uniting effect, drawing the many different regions and interpretations of Christianity within Spain under one centralized system of monarchial control. Elliot attempts to provide a balanced perspective to even the Inquisition, noting that it did not merely result in the slaughter of Spaniards, but created the map of the world, as we know it today. Also, he notes that the piety of Isabella and Ferdinand was not altogether negative. For example, when Columbus sent home "shiploads of Indians" from the New World, the court's theologians and Isabella in particular strongly protested such an action. (Elliot, p.70)

After the reign of Isabella, as he had no heir, Ferdinand was forced by the laws of succession to transfer the rule of Spain over to the Habsburg dynasty. This transfer of power lead to the control of Spain by an equally devout and expansionist leader, Charles V. Charles declared a global war against heresy, the Protestantism that was overtaking Europe. Charles failed in his quest, as was evident in the eventual domination of Calvinism and Lutheranism in Northern Europe. However, for some time Spain managed to continue its hold upon its far-reaching colonies in the Americas, despite the increasing opposition of the Protestant powers it had declared Spain's sworn enemies.

Perhaps the most unexpected part of the text is its illumination of important financial aspects in Spain's coming to dominate Europe, such as its importance in sheep farming. In a land with "hard and barren" soil, "sheep-farming" proved more important than sustained agricultural production. (Elliot, p.33) The medieval wool trade made Spain's export market yet another financial source for its expansion, as well as the considerable amount of goods that it was harvesting from its colonies in the New World.

Eventually, however, Charles V's territorial ambitions began to exhaust even Spain's coffers. Elliot details the final financial troubles of the reign of Charles, as a result of his frequent absenteeism as well as his militarism, which nearly bankrupted the nation, despite its great wealth upon the eve of his succession. Charles' own successor, his son Phillip II, was more of a diplomat and a scholar and a military leader. Phillip was also, by virtue of necessity, forced to curtail Spain's dominions because of the financial excesses of Charles.