The inevitability of war between Athens and Sparta

Athens and Sparta -- Was War Inevitable?

Between 500 and 350 BC the area now known as Greece was but a collection of separate and unallied city-states. Today, we often view cultures and political conflict in terms of nations, and take the view that since city-states were geographically close, culture was the same. This, however, was untrue, particularly in the case of the two most powerful and well-known city states of Athens and Sparta.

That is not to say that these two entities were completely divergent. Both had some cultural similarities in context with their history, and they cooperated -- if distantly, in the years leading up to the Battle of Thermopylae and subsequent defeat of the Persian invaders at Salamis and Plataea, ending Persian aggression for a time.

However, understanding Ancient Cultures is often difficult. We have limited resources from which to build a portrait of the culture, and must make a number of assumptions based on interpretation of relics, translation of documents, and the historical record. It does appear that the differences in political culture, supported by different economic and social systems, along with the age-old fear of power dominance once Persia was defeated made war almost inevitable between the two. Athenian historian Thucydides' noted, "The growth of the power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon (Sparta), made war inevitable" (Thucydides, 1.23).

In fact, the conflict between the two powers completely reshaped the Ancient Hellenic World. Athens, the strongest city-state of the time, was reduced to almost complete subjugation, its economic and cultural influence dramatically reduced. Sparta rose to become the predominant power in the Greek world. However, the economic costs of the war were disseminated across the entire penninsual, resulting in poverty, disease, and privation, with Athens never really regaining it pre-war dominance. Even more so, the end of the Athenian-Spartan conflict created a different psychological and foreign relations thrust in the Ancient World. The conflict between democracy (Athens) and oligarchy (Sparta) was supported by other factions in other countries and city states; once Sparta triumphed civil war became more of a common occurance in the Greek world, and changed warfare from a more limited and formalized conflict to war that was complete, waged against populations, creating vast devastation and ending the Golden Age of Greece forever (Kagan).

General History of Athens

Athens is one of the oldest cities in the Ancient World, having been continuously inhabited for at least 7000 years. It was one of the centers of the Mycenaean civilization in 1400 BC. By the 6th century, social unrest led to societal reforms (the Reforms of Solon) which were important building blocks in the eventual introduction of democracy around 508 BC. By this time in its history, Athens had become a significant naval power, helping the Ionian colonial cities rebel against Persian rule, thus instituting the Greco-Persian Conflict. After the defeat of the Persians Athens became the leading city-state of Ancient Greece, both in economic and political power. This including the Deilian League, ostensibly to band together other city-states in a defensive organization against Persia, but really more of an Athenian-based power brokerage designed to help Athens gain more power and influence over all of Greece (Pomeroy).

After the defeat by the Spartans in 404 BC, Athens never fully recovered, but became relatively prosperous as a seaport, trading center, and embarkation point during the Crusades, conquered again by the Ottoman Empire in 1458.

General History of Sparta

Sparta was a prominent city-state in Ancient Greece, loaded far to the south of Athens in the south-easterner Peloponnese. Emerging as a succinct political entity around the 10th century BC, from 650 BC on it was the dominant military land-power in Ancient Greece. Militarily, Sparta was recognized as the leader of the combined Greek forces against the Persians, and while it emerged victorious over Athens in the Peloponnesian Wars, the conflict ruined much of Sparta's economy and power. In fact, Sparta was defeated by the city-state Thebes in 371, ending its role as the predominant power in Greece. Despite this, the unique socio-cultural and political philosophy it engendered changed the course of Greek history. Sparta did, however, manage to remain independent until Rome conquered Greece in 146 BC (Cartledge).

Political Culture of Athens

Political culture in Ancient Athens revolved around a philosophical idea of logic and human progress and actualization. Both of these concepts were relatively unique in the Ancient World, yet this uniqueness is what drove the political and cultural psychology of Athens. Within this paradigm, though, was built a distrust and intellectual animosity for other viewpoints -- an intolerance of autocracy, if you will. Thucydides notes, "The secret of happiness is freedom, and the secret of freedom, courage"

Naval dominance was the trademark of the Athenian military, again due to historical trends and proximity. Their intellectual focus, for instance, aided in the development of naval weaponry and architecture vastly superior to others -- the Athenian trireme. This ship was a galley that allowed for ramming, a maximum speed of 10 knots, and a superior strategic advantage at sea that also contributed to Athenian arrogance (Kovacs).

Athens was dependent upon agriculture, both land and sea based, was cosmopolitan, descendent from Ionian culture, and highly dependent upon trade and sea-commerce. They tended to look forward, imagining the human condition as what could be, rather than what was. Because of this, and the philosophical basis for societal thought, Athenian arrogance manifested itself in the view that it alone knew what was best for Greece. The idea of allowing more free-will for educated individuals, and a continual outward search for allies and acquisitions created a belief that the manifest destiny of Athens was to rule Greece based on ideals and power (Pomeroy).

Political Culture of Sparta

Sparta had no long tradition of seafaring or port contacts with other cultures. From early on, their culture was based on adherence to a military code, to the ruling council, and a philosophical trend towards conservatisms (focusing on the past or present, less concerned about the future). Spartans were descendants of the Dorian invaders, and never really developed the idea of a democratic or open form of power or opportunity. Spartan climate was harsher than that of Athens, and the city was depended upon agriculture, having no easy access to the ocean. Military service was mandated, and almost no lasting works of art or literature came out of Spartan culture. Ironically, though, women in Spartan culture had much more power and authority than that in "democratic" Athens (Pomeroy).

Sparta, although militaristic, was primarily defensive based. They considered themselves to be the iconic "protector" of the peninsula. Their push for military power was to gain hegemony for themselves and control over other kingdoms, but not at the expense of northern city-states, in general. Sparta was ruled by a combination of monarchy and oligarchy; usually rulers who ruled for their lifetime. The basic focus was rule by the few for the benefit of the many, as opposed to Athenian views of rule by the many so that inclusion would benefit more (Cartledge).

Sociology of Sparta

The overall goal of Spartan society was to produce the best warrior possible. Of course, there were other needs for a warrior society (food, clothing, weapons, etc.), but the educational system was designed to produce good soldiers. Training began for boys at age 7 and lasted 11 years. These youths underwent harsh treatment, very few clothes, no shoes, and to learn and take pride in enduring pain and hardship. They were trained to harden themselves to the elements (cold and heat) and all learning focused on weapons, boxing, wrestling, and fighting. At age of 20, Spartan men had to pass a series of daunting tests in order to become members of the military, at which time they were relegated to the barracks, regardless of their marital status. Provided these mean served a decade honorably, they could retire and become citizens by age 30, but were still attached peripherally to the military until age 60, quite old for the Ancient World. Spartan girls went to school at 7, too, focusing on gymnastics, wrestling and calisthenics so that a strong woman could produce strong babies, and thus serve the state. Additionally, Spartan women were literate and could move freely in society and engage in debate and public argument -- also having economic power (Pomeroy, Spartan Women)

Socio-Political Viewpoints

Athens was not dedicated solely to peace, just as Sparta was not dedicated solely to war. However, the focal aspects of society different enough that conflict was probably inevitable, especially based on the proximity and issues with other city-states after the Persians were expelled. During the reigns of Darius and his son Xerses, Persian aggression tended to unite most of Greece. From the Persian point-of-view, of course, the Ionian colonies were part of its empire and had to be defended and protected. From the Greek point-of-view, however, the cultural basis of the Ionian colonies would forever be Greek, regardless of who controlled the area we now know as Turkey. The autocratic nature of Persian rule also joined Athens and Sparta together because they say a common enemy encroaching on Greece and, in fact, wishing to subjugate the entire peninsula. This common enemy focused the two city-states into what each did best: Athens as the planners and focal point for bringing other city-states together as well as naval might; Sparta as military planners, strategists, and holding a strong and well-trained army that was fighting for a cause (Hall).

All other political or social differences were pushed aside during the Persian War period, and so for roughly five decades, from 499 to 449 BC, Athens and Sparta could easily cooperate out of Greek pride, fear of invasion and enslavement, and a sincere desire to remain free from outside rule and influence. The entire Delian League was dedicated to not becoming a part of the Persian Empire (Cartledge).

Clash of Cultures

Politically and sociologically, Athens and Sparta were different. Both forms of government believed in the law, but Athens took a broader view of the role of the individual into the legal and political process; while Sparta remained convinced that a benevolent and fair monarch was far more efficient. Both city-states knew about war and prepared for war: Athens at sea, Sparta on land. Sparta's educational system, called "agoge," focused on more military and physical adaptations to warfare and the environment, while Athenian education strove for more of a well-rounded, holistic and academic education. Sparta had to have a strong military, for it was outnumbered by the helots, slaves from Messenia who, over various conflicts became more numerous in Spartan society. Education exists in society to model the values of that society; as youth grow, they become leaders and take that acculturation into reality when dealing with others. Thus, once the Persian nemesis was gone, Athens was at a point of economic and political power, and Sparta, who had essentially "won" the land war, had no interest in replacing Persian authority with that of Athenian.

Ironically, Persia actually supported Sparta in the first phases of conflict, the Ionian wars, believing that Athens actually wished to acquire Persian lands in Ionia and beyond. Athens likely predicated this conflictual arrangement through negotiations with Spartan ally Megara, which at the time was in conflict with Corinth. Various peace agreements and cease fires were signed, including a Thirty Year's Peace. Athens was not content, though, and issues a number of economic and commerce decrees, some affecting Spartan allies. Finally, Sparta had had enough, and believing Athens had provoked more conflict, declared the peace unattainable (Kagan).

It was, though, the very sociological and political culture of both regimes that confounded themselves so much that they could not understand the actually issues of economic and cultural aggression. The educational system of Athens produced thinkers who viewed the entire Ancient World as tenable for colonization -- both peaceful and not so. The Spartans were more pragmatic, preferring to maintain control over their region and retain power through conservative military might. As long as there was one focused enemy of both, the differences seemed minimal. Once that ended, Sparta felt threatened, rightly so, by Athens acquiring city-state after city-state until Spartan authority was in question. The consequences, however, were untenable for all sides; wanton destruction of the economic and social infrastructures and most certainly, problems rebuilding a war machine that was effective, leaving Greece ultimately open to Roman take-over.