¶ … Individuals Become Terrorists? As the costly global battle against terrorism continues, the question is constantly begged, "Why do some individuals become terrorists while others do not?" Certainly, there are some generic attributes that distinguish many individuals who are considered terrorists in the eyes of the international community, including being young and male, but the generalities tend to stop there because women and even children have also been involved in terrorist attacks in the past. To gain some fresh insights about these issues, this paper provides a review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning the various motivational factors that have been shown to turn ordinary individuals into terrorists. Following a discussion of these issues, a summary of the research and important findings concerning why some individuals become terrorists are provided in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

What is terrorism, anyway? Although a single, universally acceptable definition of terrorism is not available, the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85). In addition, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) further differentiates terrorism as being domestic or international as follows:

Domestic terrorism is the unlawful use, or threatened use, of force or violence by a group or individual based and operating entirely within the United States or Puerto Rico without foreign direction committed against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof in furtherance of political or social objectives.

International terrorism involves violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or any state, or that would be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or any state. These acts appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population, influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, or affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping. International terrorist acts occur outside the United States or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum (Terrorism 2002-2005, p. 1).

An important point made by Wilkinson (2001) in defining terrorism is that is different from other forms of social responses, even if its overall objectives are similar. In this regard, Wilkinson emphasizes that, "Terrorism is a special form of political violence. It is not a philosophy or a political movement" (2001, p. 107). Having distinguished what terrorism is not, Wilkinson then goes on to explain what it is: "Terrorism is a weapon or a method, which has been used throughout history by both state and sub-state organisations for a whole variety of political causes or purposes" (2001, p. 107). The five major characteristics of this special form of political violence are as follows:

1. It is premeditated and aims to create a climate of extreme fear or terror;

2. It is directed at a wider audience or target than the immediate victims of the violence;

3. It inherently involves attacks on random and symbolic targets, including civilians;

4. The acts of violence committed are seen by the society in which they occur as extra-normal, in the literal sense that they breach the social norms, thus causing a sense of outrage; and,

5. Terrorism is generally used to try to influence political behaviour in some way: for example to force opponents into conceding some or all of the perpetrators demands, to provoke an over reaction, to serve as a catalyst for more general conflict or to publicize a political or religious cause, to inspire followers to emulate violent attacks, to give vent to deep hatred and the thirst for revenge, and to help undermine governments and institutions designated as enemies by the terrorists (Wilkinson 2001, p. 107).

Clearly, then, there terrorism is a broad-based concept but there are some useful distinguishing characteristics of terrorism that can help distinguish terrorists from political activists and others who seek political change through less violent means (Wilkinson 2001). An important point made by Silke (2003), though, is that most people do not just wake up one morning and decide, "Well, my life is terrible so today is the day I become a terrorist." Rather, Silke emphasizes that, "Becoming...

It is not usually something that happens quickly or easily" (2003, p. 35). Because the question is so important, it is not surprising that there has been an increased amount of interest by researchers concerning why some people become terrorists. To date, though, no overarching explanation has been advanced that is supported by valid and reliable clinical evidence. For instance, according to Silke, "As yet there is no scientific evidence of any genetic role in determining why certain people become involved in terrorism, and specific biological approaches to explaining terrorism have tended to be flawed" (Silke 2003, p. 35).
Despite these limitations, it is possible to evaluate the known actions of thousands of terrorists over the years to develop some level of consensus concerning the precise motivational factors that can turn ordinary people into terrorists. Just as there is no universally accepted definition of "terrorism," there remains a lack of consensus concerning which motivational factors are most operative in compelling people to make the fateful decision to turn their lives into a "weapon" in their capacity as terrorists; however, what is known is that the more motivational factors present, the more likely an individual is to make that decision. In this regard, Silke emphasizes that, "It is important to stress again that neither are these single-issue explanations of why people become terrorists. Rather each factor works in combination with other factors, and the more factors present, and the more pronounced each factor is, then the more likely it is that the individual could become a terrorist" (2003, p. 36).

Although every individual is unique, of course, the two biological factors that have been consistently linked with individuals becoming terrorists are gender and age. According to Silke, "While a causative role for these factors is not entirely unambiguous, there is certainly a correlation between the two factors and most recruits to terrorist organisations" (2003, p. 36). While it would be disingenuous to suggest that profiling is a socially acceptable tool, from a strictly pragmatic perspective, domestic and international law enforcement authorities looking for terrorists would be well advised to first look for young men because these are the overwhelming majority of terrorists today as well across time and cultures. Indeed, Silke points out that, "Most people who join a terrorist group are teenagers and people in their early twenties, and most new recruits are male" (emphasis added) (2003, p. 36).

This pragmatic assessment is supported by a ponderous amount of scientific literature confirming that adolescent and young adult males are responsible for the overwhelming majority of violent crimes around the world (Silke 2003). For example, Silke notes that, "Statistics on violent crime across the world consistently show that the perpetrators of violent crimes are most likely to be males aged between 15 and 25 years of age. This is a very robust finding that is remarkably stable across cultures and regions" (2003, p. 36). In fact, adolescent and young adult males are responsible for more criminal activity than any other age group (Silke 2003). It is also not surprising, then, that most terrorists are also young men, an outcome that is likely associated with their propensity to engage in other high-risk and dangerous activities that are associated with this age group -- again across time and cultures.

As noted above, the more motivational factors that are present, the more likely an individual is to make the decision to pursue life as a terrorist (but likely not with this term in mind). According to Silke, "With terrorism, the same factors that attract young men to deviant activity in other spheres can also play at least a partial role in the attraction terrorism holds for a few. Higher impulsivity, higher confidence, greater attraction to risk-taking and needs for status can all work to give life as a terrorist a certain appeal for some young males" (2003, p. 36). Other extremely common motivational factors that have been consistently associated with the decision by individuals to join known terrorist groups include retribution and revenge (Reich 1998). The research to date suggests that young men are most likely to be attitudinally positive concerning retribution and vengeance as motivational factors and younger men are responsible for the majority of the violent attacks carried out by terrorist organizations (Silke 2003).

All of this is not to say, though, that just because they are young and impulsive, that terrorists are also stupid. Indeed, according to Abrahms, "The international community cannot expect to make terrorism unprofitable and thus scarce without knowing the incentive structure of its practitioners. The…