The history, causes, and media perpetuation of Islamophobia

¶ … Islamophobia Justified

Islamophobia

An introduction to the topic, addressing the specific information that will be discussed so the reader has a clear understanding of what is being offered in the paper.

A history of the term "Islamophobia," where it came from, why it is used, and how it is used.

A discussion of racism in the context of Islamic and Muslim people.

The fear of Islamic or Muslim people, when and how that developed, and why it has become (and remained) so prevalent today.

There are alternatives that can be addressed when it comes to Islamophobia, but education is generally the key to finding and addressing these options.

Allegations made against Islamic people are strong, and many of them are unfounded.

The media can create a culture of fear, by reporting on anything that would seem to be against Islamic people instead of keeping a more neutral reporting style.

Trends come and go, but the number of people showing discomfort with Islam continues to grow, and there are a number of issues that fuel that.

IX. Contrasting views are to be expected, but these views need to be based on facts, not on fear and inaccurate opinions.

X. Criticism of Islam is significant, but there are also criticisms of people who rush to judge Islamic people.

XI. Conclusions on Islam should be factual, and based on actual evidence.

XII. References

Introduction

As a relatively new term when it comes to common or frequent usage, "Islamophobia" is being used to categorize those who are fearful of Islamic things, ideas, and people. It is also used for those who are prejudiced against Muslims or for those who have a hatred of them (Allen, 14). It comes from the idea that Muslims are "different" from the majority of people in the United States, and this has fostered an "us against them" mentality that is not helpful to good relationships between people or countries. In some cases, those who have these feelings toward Muslims also target those who are perceived to be Muslim, even though they may actually belong to another ethnic group (Allen, 19). It brings to light concerns over prejudice and stereotyping, but also concerns over the miscategorization of a number of people who may be thought to "look Muslim." The term and the concept itself have both been criticized for being inappropriate and inaccurate, and for creating labels on people that may not have any accuracy and that are based on misguided and incorrect information (van Driel, 24).

It has been called racism by some, and others have disagreed with that assessment. The largest argument that many people make against the term and what it stands for is that it has not allowed people to truly express their deep fears or concerns for the radical variants of the Islamic culture that result in issues like terrorism without it being assumed that a hatred or fear of all Muslims is being expressed (Ramadan, 45). There are also a number of reasons for Islamophobia, and arguments about what causes it and how it came about. The September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center and other structures have been cited as one of the reasons that people appear to be fearful of Muslim individuals. However, others argue that the fear is more closely associated with a larger number of Muslim people making themselves visible in the Western world, and that visibility making non-Muslims uncomfortable.

History

While many people may not have heard the term Islamophobia before, it is not a new term. It simply has not been in common usage, but more people are using it today because of increased tensions between the United States and the Islamic culture. The first recorded use of the term occurred as early as 1910, with others uses recorded in 1912 and 1918 -- including one in a biography written about Muhammad (Gottschalk & Greenberg, 37). These were books written in French, and it is argued that the word did not mean the same thing then as it does in modern society. When the books were translated to English, for example, the word was used to show a fear of Islam that came from feminist Muslims, as well as Muslims who were more liberal (Allen, 58). At that time, the term did not mean a non-Muslim who was afraid of, or had a hatred for, Islamic people. The word was kept completely within the Islamic culture, and used more to indicate differences of opinion than anything else. There were other interpretations of the term, as well as how and why it was used, during that time, though.

One of these interpretations was that some of the authors using the term were criticizing another man, Henri Lammens, who had an attitude to Islam that was overly hostile. Lammens' crusade was considered to be pseudo-scientific, and he was seen as someone who wanted to bring down Islam permanently (Sheehi, 128). Even French colonial bureaucrats such as Alain Quellien mentioned Islamophobia, stating that Muslims were against civilization, and were, essentially, everything that Europeans and Christians were not (Sheehi, 130). In 1923, the first use of the term Islamophobia was seen in English, and became a part of common usage when the Runnymede Trust's report was published in 1997 (Greaves, 57). During a 2004 conference, Kofi Annan stated that the term had to be created in order to take the increase of widespread bigotry into account and have a word that could be used for it (Kundnani, 59).

Racism

For many scholars, Islamophobia is believed to be a type of racism. Sociology journals often mention the issue, and they call it a form of anti-Muslim racism, which they deem as a continuation of anti-Arab and anti-Asian racism (Allen, 93). While the sentiment is clearly understood, as is the idea behind this opinion, Muslims are not actually a race. Calling Islamophobia racism is not completely accurate. However, because of the similarities to racism and the ways in which many people view Muslim as a race and not a religion, it is common for people to see Islamophobia as a type of racism. Parallels have been drawn between Islamophobia and the anti-Semitism that was seen during the 1930s, as well as the anti-Catholic views that have also occurred throughout history (Greaves, 49). Not every scholar or academic believes that the Islamophobia term is the same thing as racism, though, and some are still questioning whether the term should even continue to be acknowledge and used, since there are both general and specific terms that can also be used to indicate a dislike for a particular group of people.

Since there is no real consensus on what the term actually means and different people apply it differently (fear, prejudice, hatred, etc.), using the term as something that completely addresses the Muslim culture from the standpoint of race can be difficult and confusing. A number of scholars have stated that Islamophobia is racism, but that it is wrapped in the terms of religion (Allen, 48). There is a European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), and it believes that Islamophobia is a human rights violation when it is expressed or practiced. What a person believes on the inside, in his or her mind, cannot be changed unless that person decides to do so. However, what that person does with those beliefs is important, and can be seen to affect the person's treatment of others who are different from him or her, or against whom he or she has a prejudice.

Alternatives

There are some proposed alternatives to both the term and the concept of Islamophobia. Professor Fred Halliday and other scholars have argued that it is not really Islam that people are upset with, but Muslims -- and only some Muslims, at that (Allen, 128). He states that "anti-Muslimism" would be a better term for the fear and hatred that is often directed toward this particular group of people (Allen, 129). There are also a number of types and strains of Islamophobia that are seen, depending on the culture and nation from which a person comes. That was not addressed in the analysis that was completed by Runnymede, which only focused on the Muslims in Britain, and made no mention of the United States or other countries (van Driel, 103). There are two different ways in which Islamophobia is used, as well. One is through the attacking of Islam's perceived tenets, and another is through negative stereotyping. Those stereotypes then are often turned into actual attacks, and people who create and follow these stereotypes do not take the time to look into whether there are other ways to consider the issue.

There are, therefore, different Islamophobias, just as there are different racisms. That does not invalidate the concept, however, and can even expand on how it is viewed and whether there are other ways in which it can be properly addressed. One of the biggest issues with finding an alternative to the Islamophobia term is that there is no acceptable definition of the term that encompasses all that it might mean to everyone who hears or uses the term. Additionally, not everyone believes the term is accurate or should even be used at all, and some people do not agree that Islamophobia is anything other than racism with a fancy or more specific label. There is both secularly motivated criticism and religious-based prejudice when it comes to Islam. The term Islamoprejudice has been created to address the idea that there is a difference between the two issues, which can help facilitate understanding (Ramadan, 38).

Allegations

There are organizations that are focused on and interested in keeping Islam out of the United States. Groups like Freedom Defense Initiative and Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) do what they can do keep Islamic people away, and they make no secret of their dislike and distrust of any person who is Islamic or who identifies as Muslim (Sheehi, 48). The Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League have branded groups like these as hate groups, because they have gone out of their way to make all of Islam look bad (Sheehi, 53). They brand every Muslim as a terrorist, and argue that their "phobia" is actually just a realism that not everyone possesses, but that everyone should be carefully considering. There have been two schools of thought about the allegations these kinds of groups are bringing to light. Many believe that they are spreading hate messages that address all Muslims, and others feel that they are providing information about the violent groups that reside within Muslim culture, not providing a blanket statement about everyone who belongs to that religion (Sheehi, 59).

A number of organizations also focus on keeping Islam out of countries like the UK, but it is generally impossible to do this (Gottschalk & Greenberg, 39). There is no law that prohibits a person from coming into the country based on his or her religion, and there is no legal way for those people to be persecuted, either. That is true in Europe and also in the United States, where there are more Muslims every day. They are making their voices heard, and pushing back against the hate groups that are attacking them in some cases. However, there are also Muslims who simply keep their religion to themselves and avoid discussing it with anyone, because they do not want to "make waves" or upset anyone who may not feel comfortable around Muslims. The idea that they are "all" terrorists is inaccurate at best, but there are still many people who have that opinion and have no desire to change it.

The Media

The media plays a large role in Islamophobia. It has been accused of perpetuating the stereotype of Muslim individuals being terrorists and being dangerous (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 138). That has been seen to be the case in many news programs, and also on television shows where the person committing the crime or attempting to harm others has ties to Muslim groups. It is no secret that there are people in the United States and other countries who are Muslim and who may not be "friendly" in the sense that they respect other cultures and religions. Some may even be plotting harm and terroristic activities. However, there are also plenty of people who are not Muslim and who are plotting those same kinds of things. The media, while it acknowledges both of those issues, tends to focus too heavily on a person being Muslim or Islamic when it comes to whether that person may have extremist ties (Allen, 18). When Muslims are continually portrayed as "the bad guys," and there are few, if any, Muslim characters on television or in the movies who are kind, careful, harmless people, it is easy for stereotypes to be reinforced.

The media generally shows Muslims as being sexist and treating women poorly, and displays them as irrational, barbaric, and even primitive in nature (Allen, 43). They are rarely painted in a good light, and the word "Islam" or "Islamic" is often linked to comments about bombs and terrorism. The way they are linked together by the media is simply reinforcing the perceived Islamophobia that is already seen in the United States and a number of other countries, which does not help move toward a better understanding between the U.S. And Islam. Terrorist attacks that are carried out by Muslims are over-reported in the news, while attacks that are carried out by other groups are under-reported, leading to a bias that is unnecessary and unhelpful (Greaves, 94). There are, however, some media outlets that are working against Islamophobia and attempting to be completely factual and non-biased in their reporting.

Trends

Islamophobia has become more important from both political and sociological standpoints. The September 11th attacks began what could be called the latest round of Islamophobia, even though there had been references to it in the past (Kundnani, 48). The United States and the Muslim world have traditionally not gotten along well, and that has not been a secret. However, once the 9/11 attacks took place, the level of Islamophobia seen in the United States and number of European countries really became much stronger and more pronounced (Kundnani, 54). That was a serious issue for the people in those countries, and also for a number of Muslims who also condemned the attacks and had no interested in harming Americans or anyone else. Now that there are also more Muslim people in the United States, Americans have more of a reminder of Islam. That can make them uncomfortable, because they have specific thoughts and beliefs about people who identify as Muslim.

Because of those thoughts and beliefs, many people do not want to live around Muslims, and that only perpetuates the lack of understanding between cultures, as they also have similarities to be considered. A circular model then appears, where people are uncomfortable around Muslims, the government steps in with countermeasures and legislation directed at Muslim countries, and that legislation works to make people even more uncomfortable with Muslim and Islamic individuals (Allen, 40). It is believed that Islamophobia has always existed to some degree, mostly because people are generally uncomfortable with those who are different than them. There have even been talks among scholars that have expressed concern that another Holocaust will take place, and that it will directed against Muslims this time. That is a possibility that could come to pass if there is nothing done to curb the tide of Islamophobia in the United States and foster understanding between cultures.

Contrasting Views

There are several contrasting views on Islam, most of which were discussed in the Runnymede report. These views can either be considered to be open or closed, and that closed views are the ones that are considered when Islamophobia is seen to be present (Kundnani, 48). These eight closed views are:

Islam is separate and other, having values that are not the same as other cultures, not affected by them, and not used to influence them.

Islam is seen as more of a political ideology than a religion, and it is used for political and military strategy purposes.

Islam is viewed as a monolith which is unresponsive to change and completely static.

It is natural and normal to be hostile to Muslims and uncomfortable with everything that Islam involves and stands for.

Islam is completely inferior to what is offered in the West in that it is sexist, barbaric, and primitive.

It is perfectly acceptable to reject any criticisms that Islam makes of the way things are done in the West.

Islam is aggressive and violent, and it supports terrorism and related activities.

Muslims are excluded from mainstream society and discriminated against because of acceptable hostility toward them (Kundnani, 51).

As can be seen, these are strong views that have been accepted for a long time, and that are not based on facts but on stereotypes and a desire to categorize all Muslim people as being the same. With a number of people having these views, it can be difficult to provide a different message that helps to build understanding.

Criticism

Even though Islamophobia is a widely recognized term in the modern day, the use of it and the overall concept behind it have seen a lot of criticism. That critical attitude about the term still continues, and the years since the 2001 terrorist attacks have seen more discussion of the term, what it means, whether it is acceptable, and if it can and should be adjusted in order to protect Muslims and differentiate in some way between the "standard" Muslim people and the extremists (van Driel, 48). Studies are showing that there are a large number of challenges to the term, and that the meaning and usage of it vary widely, depending on who uses it (Allen, 59). With so many different options for context and misinterpretation of meaning, it is not surprising that the term is criticized. Many people feel it is not appropriate at all, and a number of others believe that it is not an accurate term because it targets all Muslims instead of only focusing on those who are attempting to do harm. It is not realistic to assume that the term will be changed or removed from usage, but awareness can help create a more factual attitude about it.

Terminology can help or hinder a number of things, and an understanding between the United States and Islam is not being helped along by the ways in which the term Islamophobia is being used (Allen, 93). It also implies that there is something "wrong" with being Islamic, and that all people who belong to that group must be hated or feared for some reason. The term is also very polarizing, and it feeds into a culture where Muslims are already feared, looked down upon, or outright hated. That means the term is losing the analytical value it may have had in the past, and provides individuals who are already uncomfortable with Muslim culture with another reason to avoid Muslims or mistrust them. Because the term does not facilitate reason and factual discussion, it is often deemed unacceptable -- but yet it is still widely used with no end of usage in sight.

Conclusion

There are a number of issues surrounding the term Islamophobia, and some of them are created by the word itself. It automatically implies that there should be fear or hatred, and that Muslims are not people who can be trusted. That is unfortunate, because the majority of Islamic people are simply trying to live their lives, just like the majority of people in the United States and other countries. However, the media has worked to foster a sense of fear and loathing between the two groups, and that has caused more problems to develop that could have been avoided. Of course, the 9/11 attacks were a serious issue, but they were not treated in a way that could have created better relations between the United States and Islam. Instead, they were taken as an opportunity to essentially denounce all of Islam, instead of just those who committed the terrorist attacks. Since that time, especially, Islam has been associated with terrorism in the minds of the majority of Americans. That has brought to light a number of fears and quite a bit of anger.

Those feelings are not going away, and they are creating further problems for Muslims and raising tensions between Islam and the United States, along with other Western countries. While it is unlikely that these issues will be resolved anytime soon, and it is important to note that they may never be resolved, it is also important to note that using terms like Islamophobia is not helping anyone work toward a resolution of issues faced between the two entities. The more a culture of fear and anger is fostered in the United States when it comes to the Muslim world, the larger the difficulties will be for those who want to build a bridge between the two cultures and reduce the animosity with which they interact with one another. The removal of terms like Islamophobia is a start, but does not go far enough. It is what is behind the creation and usage of the term that needs to change.