Museum methods and practices

Museum Methods museum is usually a non-profit organization with intent to provide education and enlightenment by the organized collection, preservation, interpretation and exhibit of items deemed to be of interest to the public or community. Historically, museums have evolved as collaborative projects to house collected works gathered for the appreciation of the current and future generations in our society. However, such definitions cannot be regarded as the last word on the definition of the term 'museum', for the same definitions could be applied to such institutions as zoos, arboretums, nature centers, visitor centers, historical places and planetariums. In short, the museum concept remains hard to pin down:

Museums are more than the repositories of the past, with memories and objects both rare and beautiful. Museums are cultural, educational, and civic centers in our communities - centers for exhibition, conservation, research, and interpretation; they are theaters and movie houses, job-training programs, schools and day-care centers, libraries and concert halls (Pitman, 1).

As this statement from Bonnie Pitman suggests, a wide range of definitions exists for what museums are and what they do. Most definitions include the permanent preservation and public display of significant cultural, educational, scientific and artistic objects. In particular, public perceptions of museums have tended to focus on their role as repositories and showcases for the latter; as Harold Skramstad has commented, 'When journalists and others outside the museum field speak of "museums," they are generally referring to art museums' (Skramstad, 111). As a definition of a museum's purpose, however, this is very vague, given that the definition of art is so loosely translated in our culture. A more precise definition might be found in consideration of the fact that conservation and collection is usually a requirement in defining the measure of a museum - a definition that raises the question of methodology as much as purpose.

The International Council of Museums follows this model in the standards it applies to the organizational structure, responsibilities, classification and research that form the science of museology and the discipline of museography - the techniques that are used in the operation and practice of museum science. This approach can be viewed as a starting point in defining the categorization of museums, but boundaries still remain blurred and controversy continues both within the museum professional and in wider society on the classifications of museum types.

One way out of this problem is to define anything as a museum that calls itself a museum. The wide applicability of the term in this sense is reflected in the fact that in our modern world, many people with individual collections of personal interest have established institution they refer to as museums. These museums are compilations of thematic objects that are offered by individuals seeking approval and admiration from the public for the displayed works. With an endless array of thematic museums in almost every city, collections representing most hobbies and topics have placed the term museum on private institutions involving object accumulation and presentation. This use of the term 'museum' in some ways harks back to the origin of the modern museum in the 'cabinets of curiosities' and personal collections of the eighteenth century (Spalding, 38), but in today's context I question the use of the term represented by a private doll collection being referred to as a 'doll museum.' To give another example, having traveled through South Dakota this past summer, I noted references to the Cornhusk Temple and Museum on the tourist maps. Although many cornhusk artisans enjoy the use of vegetable remains in their leisure pursuit, I fail to see the connection between a hobby and an appropriate use of the term 'museum.' I lean toward a less liberal, more culturally conservative belief that museums require a more traditional approach to continue to serve society with higher standards and dignity.

An analysis of two important strands in museum displays, anthropology and natural history, sheds some light on the issue of the relationship between the preservation and expansion of knowledge and the need for public display and entertainment in museological methods and approaches. Noting the differences between natural history and anthropology is important in museum science. Natural history could be defined the systematic and organized account of natural phenomena. Anthropology is division of social science that focuses on the study of human beings, including the evolution and social relationships of humans. Human evolution is a natural phenomenon and therefore the subjects overlap in a distinguishable area of interrelated content. Fossilized hominid remains would be appropriately displayed in either a museum of natural history or a museum of anthropology. The interpretation of archaeological artifacts and the prehistoric botanical evidence that links the early man with biology and nature are related subjects that could easily share an exhibit hall. The presentation of an exhibit of anthropological and cultural significance and a natural history exhibit have an overlapping relationship that is often compatible in a single museum setting. If a display depicting the cornhusk temple were displayed in the same hall as a tribute to use of plants in architecture, the focus would be lost.

An example of a museum with a clear commitment to high standards of ethics and cultural and scientific values which embodies the maintenance of focus in the construction and presentation of its exhibits is the Florida Museum of Natural history in Gainesville, which is affiliated with the University of Florida, Gainesville. The study and research conducted by the museum extends through the state, governing any anthropological finds and any significant fossilized remains from vertebrate species found within the state. The institution has legislative support in the preservation of these items of relative interest to the public. The museum maintains the highest level of standards in providing educational exhibits and continues to expand on the displayed works with a concise mission. Academic research is paramount to the institution's plan and it therefore draws exceptional research candidates to support the museum's interests. This emphasis on academic activities, and the integration of the museum's research with the educational and scientific work of the University of Florida, exists side-by-side with a concern to involve the public in the creation of the exhibitions that form the public face of the museum, as in the 'Northwest Florida: Waterways and Wildlife' exhibit opened in 2000, which involved public participation in the re-creation of a riverine landscape (Florida Museum of Natural History web site).

Art museums would seem to have a different mission to that of natural history and anthropology museums. The definition of art is highly debated and even when it is agreed upon, art is still highly subjective, interpreted uniquely by each person. Critically acclaimed work as judged by one expert might be labeled appalling by a second professional opinion. Nearly every person polled sums up the arts differently. Art encompasses material arts and performing arts and the range of topics included is very wide. The following is a partial list of art forms obtained from the electronic resources at Hyperdictionary.com:

Artificial flower arrangements, aviation depiction and performance, carving, ceramics, commercial art, creative activity, cyberart, dance, decals, decoupage, decoupage, diptych, drafting, draftsmanship, drawing, enology, falconry, gems, genre art, glyptography, graphic art, grotesque/macabre art, homiletics, horology, illustration, kitsch, minstrelsy, mosaic, music, musicianship, oenology, origami, painting, perfumery, plastic art, printmaking, publication, puppetry, sculpture, taxidermy, topiary, treasure, triptych, ventriloquism, ventriloquy, visual communication (Hyperdictionary.com website)

This list is offered to convey the wide span of artistic interpretation in our modern culture. I have never been a fan of the collections displayed by museums with modern 'art form' themes. The Smithsonian is highly regarded as a museum but the collections of modern useful items do not hold my interest. Exhibits dedicated to the presentation of nostalgic Americana and retrospective cultural anthropology may be considered a valid museum collection by some opinion. I find it similar to walking through a shopping mall, devoid of any true cultural enrichment. That is simple opinion not a statement based in fact. Many small museums do not house elite works of art, presenting collections in specialized subjects that appeal to the founding collector.

My own studies of the concepts and terminologies of museology and museum science have tended to support my conservative point-of-view on the role of the museum. Art objects and museum objects both place different values on physical works of interest. An art object is of aesthetic interest to the public. Most works of art can be attributed as works created by a person with intrinsic value. Artifacts usually convey a cultural significance related to human cultural growth. In these cases a museum must relate its activities to the higher social and cultural purposes of understanding rather than basing its appeal on individual interests or the peculiarity of particular pursuits. In my personal opinion, exhibits can be defined as planned presentations with the intent to display organized collected works for public viewing. The application of this term should be reserved to describe educational, culturally significant and scientific works. The American Association of Museums, (AAM) defines a museum as:

An organized and permanent nonprofit institution, essentially educational or aesthetic in purpose, with professional staff, that owns or uses tangible objects, cares for them and exhibits them to the public on some regular schedule (AAM Accreditation Program).

Although I agree with the basic structure of this definition, I would prefer more emphasis on the level of required professional standards necessary to designate an institution as a museum. Many non-profit institutions are established to enrich our society including, schools, libraries and community social and cultural organizations. Many of these institutions are essential in the preservation of values and identity and education of our citizens. The term museum should not be generally applied to these entities simply because they offer public enrichment under a non-profit designation. Museums should also be very clear in determining the scope of the institution; their role should be defined with clarity and selectivity, and with a recognition of wider social and cultural purpose. Attracting individuals with comparable interests to explore a museum is challenging enough, removing the common interest or deviating from a specific topic displays a lack of focus to the public. Scope should be determined by the board of trustees to ensure compatibility with a mission statement. Retaining scope throughout the years of operation is imperative to the success of a museum. Looking beyond the challenge of what should be collected and preserved and what is not appropriate for collection, museums must strive to deliberately maintain a focused scope when considering loans, passive and active exhibits and collections.

I consider myself as having a clear commitment to this vision of the purpose of a museum, expressed in a number of ways. I maintain a supportive affiliation with the American Association of Museums as an Associate Member (Evidence file, Item 1).* I am also a contributing member of the Florida Museum of Natural History (Evidence File, Item 2).* I have maintained a membership with the Historical Preservation Society of San Juan Capistrano, California and the Mission San Juan Capistrano (Evidence File, Item 3).* I am an active member with the Museum of Natural History at Crane Point Hammock, Marathon, Florida (Evidence File, Item 4).* Many other museums, scientific foundations and education facilities have my attention and support. I am listing these specific museums and foundations because I believe that they have defined missions that correlate with my philosophy in museology. I also believe that these institutions embody the true meaning of the term 'museum' as set forth by the American Association of Museums.

The American Association of Museums works to create uniformity within the field of museum science on both the national and international levels. The association seeks to define relative terms and structure to a discipline with a vast array of potential institutions seeking accreditation and recognition. This area of museum standardization, licensure and accreditation is a hot topic in contemporary museology. Standardization is intended to encourage professionalism and accurate representation, and I believe that standards do have the potential to establish a sense of coherence in an industry with a large number of vastly varying organizations. The extraordinary variety in institutions claiming to be museums has tended to obstruct standardization, since many exhibitory businesses would be disrupted or lost in the process of structuring a required professional uniformity within the museum field.

Another possibility in standardization is individual accreditation of museum staff members, requiring professional adherence to specific standards in museology. Goal-oriented to provide completeness, education and truth in service to community at large, museum professionals tend to be very diligent in maintaining standards for the sake of preserving museum integrity, honesty and accuracy. Museum professionals are not in the business of museum science for the high pay scale, working in a museum takes extraordinary dedication to a passionate cause. Museum professionalism is very similar to the teaching profession. The professional intentions are rarely questioned because the individual must have a greater purpose than income in the selection of the occupation. I have been a teacher for more than a decade, and I volunteer many of my leisure hours to museums. I understand the concepts of working with a defined purpose and have encountered many museum professionals who hold the same work ethic and express the same diligence and integrity.

The varied goals of museums is a controversial issue in museum science and museography. Museums have a duty to the public to classify and catalogue materials in a manner that is consistent with industry standards. Every museum should have a defined mission statement that focuses the combined efforts of all museums professionals within the institution to achieve a cooperative goal. Successful museums utilized the staff members and resources to fulfil the mission defined by the institution. As evidence I am including a copy of the stated function and purpose of the State of Florida's Museum of Natural History in this portfolio. This was obtained through my research of the function and purpose of museums (Evidence File, Item 5).*

The 'public face' of any museum is its presentation of its exhibits, and a range of ethical, scholarly and practical issues must be considered in planning any museum exhibition. There are many approaches in creating museum exhibits. Keeping scope and budget in mind, a director can influence the creation of new exhibits for permanent display in coordination with design specialists and department heads. A survey of space and function should be conducted prior to the design process. Examination of the potential floor plan should be reviewed. A security and conservation audit is the next logical step in exhibit creation. Revisions and formal approval by the governing body of the institution is required in most museum exhibit planning. Signage, publicity, promotion can be paramount to the success of an exhibit. Announcements should be sent to include potential donors and museum members to the opening of a new exhibit creating the feeling of inclusion and appreciation. Lists provided by the Board of Directors, director, curators and the staff, including volunteer staff and docents should provide a base for philanthropists within the community. Corporations with a history of donating to nonprofit organizations should be targeted and represented in the guest list. Events, sneak previews and gatherings held to promote a new exhibit could function as a fundraiser for future exhibits and overall museum funding.

Special activities and museum-sponsored events should extend into the community at many levels, providing education and the expansion of understanding and appreciation. Many museums offer classes in an extension program to reach the public. Youth classes and camps are offered by many facilities as a way of both education the next generation and creating a connection with the funding population of the museums future. The Historical Preservation Society of San Juan Capistrano, and the affiliated Mission San Juan Capistrano, offers an example of the creation of a very active educational outreach program which supports the mission of a site of historical preservation that is worthy of the term museum. The restoration reflects genuine effort in preserving the cultural, anthropological and historical resources of the mission. The site offers educational displays and scientific explorations for the public. Educational seminars and training are offered to the community on a regular basis. Research is conducted on the museum grounds and throughout the region by the supportive collaboration between the museum and other historical missions in California (Mission San Juan Capistrano web site). Such research and education programs are an important way to achieve what one scholar has called the 'happy balance between mass public appeal and scholarly respectability' (Ames, 30) that underlies a successful museum's appeal to both public entertainment and the expansion and extension of knowledge.

Training provided to the community should be carefully planned to ensure liability and security issues are not affected. Seminars can be presented to educate adult and college-level learners by the deliberate teachings of museum staff, and guest speakers. I have attended several seminars held at the Scripts Institute, Stephen Birch Aquarium in La Jolla, California, as an adult learner and a contributor. My experience with the guest lecturing process was very positive.

Controversy over the nature of museums and their mission, and the context of funding constraint that influences many of their activities, is reflected in the issues of museum staffing and administration. The rise in the importance of the work of volunteers, as noted above, reflects funding pressures on the maintenance of permanent staff. Volunteers often staff membership centers and sales desks, they also are commonly found as docents serving in an educational capacity. Staffing in a museum setting is as diverse as museum collections, varying according to the budgets and collections' needs for security. In smaller museums, the key departmental employees may function as multitasking employees in coordination with additional duties the ticket office, gift store, tour department as a docent, maintenance, exhibits design or other general administrative tasks. Elsewhere in museum hierarchies the need to raise funds has increasingly become the paramount defining factor in organization and administration. Many larger museums have a strict organizational structure, governed by a board of trustees and a chief administrative officer or director. Traditionally, a director has been an administrative official in charge of operations. Many museums view the duties of a director quite differently today, with a prerequisite for employment including the ability to raise funds and attract philanthropists. Curatorial staff retain their primary emphasis on the scholarly and collections management roles, but even in this realm funding pressures and the related need to attract sufficient visitors is increasingly given priority, as Ames has noted:

As museums become more oriented to public service through programs of education and entertainment, however, opportunities for scholarly research appear to recede. This is at least the case for those institutions that cannot afford to maintain separate and insulated research divisions. A number of large public museums in Canada, for example, have ruled that research, other than for exhibitions, must be done on a curator's own time (Ames, 30).

Ames's coupling of education and entertainment makes the point that, while education programs can be seen as an important aspect of a museum's social role of extending knowledge, there can be a conflict between such activities and the deepening of knowledge represented by scholarly research. Curators are inevitably at the sharp end of this debate.

Most museums that are in operation today within the United States of America are privately funded. Funding is a controversial topic, as many institutions are in competition for the limited number of grants available each year. Many corporations have been suffering in recent years with the economic recession and have cutback the tax-benefiting sizable donations to non-profit organizations. One of the key roles of a curator today may include fundraising and networking for the purpose of funds and affiliations.

For some museums, particularly perhaps smaller institutions without the benefits of university affiliations or similar associations, community engagement has become an important element of their mission, and their role within their community is defined in ways that enable them to fulfil their mission within the constraints of limited funding. The Museum of Natural History at Crane Point Hammock in Marathon is a small museum that has developed a large community following. The museum is a historical site with more than one institution, combined within common missions, goals and functions. The museum offers a nature center and hiking trails, a historical residence and heritage center and a museum devoted to natural history preservation. The mission of each 'museum' within the collective in the Crane Point Hammock is defined in relation to common threads of interest that unite the constituent institutions. The ability to house collections in a time when lack of funding restricts staffing is a challenge for most museums. The collaborative effort at Crane Point Hammock combines the staffing needs with different focused missions and created a working environment within the limits of modern funding restrictions in small museum management without compromising the structure or mission of the institution (Crane Point web site).

In many countries outside of the United States, governments fund and oversee operations in museums. This raises the issue of the censorship of exhibits, representation of ideas and the presentation of approved information. Politics has entered into the science of museology, as public relations and international relations collide in an arena of public presentation and display. A recent example is provided by the criticism levelled at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia, by the Head of the General Palestinian delegation to Australia in November 2003. The issue was the lack of political and controversial materials presented in an exhibit entitled 'The Treasures of Palestine.' Although it sounds safe to limit controversial materials and provide artistic and cultural artifacts in an exhibit that is publicized as treasures from one culture, the criticism was broadcast worldwide. Ali Kazak voiced his concerns through the media, in an interview with The World Today:

Controversial photographs and political documentaries have been removed. Photographs showing Israeli soldiers arresting youths, beating youths, pointing their guns at civilians and children and blowing up of Palestinian houses. How on earth can you separate politics from the Palestinian situation? (The World Today website)

The museums director was very cautious in his statements defending the exhibit and some employees of the museum voiced an opinion of concern for the censored materials.

This was an unusual example of the challenges that a museum might face in the acquisition and presentation of exhibit. In an attempt to provide a display that raised awareness for the beauty offered by a cultural, the museum faced outrage for the lack of controversial materials on display.

Traditionally the role of museums in society was a place for gathering, to explore the finer rarities, antiquities and academic enlightenments in a social setting. Many modern museums have morphed this role and skewed the perspective of the traditional social setting. Museums are contemporary institutions in public service, and therefore must provide exhibits worthy of public display. The definition of worthy exhibits is always up to the individual organization to interpret. Some museums use this opportunity to exhibit shocking and offensive materials. The exhibition may cause a temporary increase in public viewing and press opportunity to an institution but negative publicity can have an equally negative effect on the longevity of any nonprofit organization. Since museums are not above the law and must abide by the same rules of society, museum staff members and directors must be familiar with advocacy, litigation, immunity doctrines, liability law and laws pertaining to personal property. When seeking an agreement in the acquisition of artifacts or in acquisition contracts, the Board of Directors should use legal representation to oversee the legal matters. Contracts can create difficult situations unless both parties involved have detailed contracts that firmly limit the respective responsibilities in an implied or apparent contract, especially in regard to accessioning and deaccessioning. Museums also have a responsibility to the public that it serves, a fiduciary responsibility, and a strict code of ethics must be adhered to when representing materials as an institution of public interest. Museums must create a setting that is accessible for all persons interesting in viewing the presented materials, including the mobility impaired and uniquely challenged. Museums must provide an environment free of hazards to the viewing public, keeping exhibits safe for children and frail visitors.

As part of a museum's research functions, some specimens may be held in a collection for research and considered unworthy of display without extensive restoration. Specimen preparation differs with different types of specimens. Many require an monitoring and controlling the humidity variance controlling devices within the museum environment and in storage facilities. Biological preservation varies with specimens as well. Reliable entomologists should be consulted when a new specimen is brought in for display to detect and prevent infestations. The condition of many items could be at risk with parasitical threats to existing works or specimens at the museum. An intended biological specimen might be from a country with a parasitical challenge that may require individual fumigation intervention or a more proficient taxidermists assistance. Psocids are of great concern to museum professionals; commonly referred to as 'book lice' they thrive in humid environments and can wreak havoc on collections. Mould is also another stealth predator in museum collections that can be dealt with using temperature variants and humidity controls. Questions of the safety of newly acquired specimens should be ascertained prior to acceptance of a specimen, even into archives. Design of exhibits, techniques and restoration, budgeting and grant writing for new additions, relating to the exhibition of archival and nonarchival museum specimens are all part of the science of Museology. I am submitting several paragraphs on the restoration of invertebrate fossils that I recently wrote. This is presented to confirm some of my knowledge in the area of restoration of specimens for exhibit (Evidence File, item #).* Many damaging effects pose a concern in museum science. Some objects are at risk when exposed to daily ultra violet radiation, through artificial indoor lighting and natural sunlight. Relative humidity is also a concern for the long-term preservation of fragile collections. When displaying a collection in a temporary exhibit, the contract should include lighting, temperature, and humidity limitations for objects that are fragile. According to Harold F. Maitland, author of Preserving Textiles: A Guide for the Nonspecialist (1999), properly storing a clean textile item, and appropriate display requires specific lighting, climate control, and other controlled environmental factors. Every preserved artifact in a museum may have some special requirement, if not many, to maintain its displayable longevity.