Network standards and protocols

Network Standards

A Brief Look Since 1995

This is a research paper that focuses on network standards and protocols that involve strategies in management. Leadership strategies cannot handle the need for network standards to handle billions of users and user generated applications. Therefore management strategies are more appropriate. Furthermore the history of network standards shows layering through the OSI models follows a management approach vs. A leadership approach.

In the OSI model, there are seven layers. The seven layers then acts as a means of managing problems within that layer as it is separated and contained. People can run communication through these layers much more easily and smoothly than through a singular, whole layer. The several layers are more efficient and can handle and spot problems and inefficiencies more quickly. It serves as the basis for network standards.

The history behind network standards provides valuable insight into how organizations emerged to deal with the influx of problems associated with the advent of the internet in the 1990's. Several organizations have been created to deal with such problems and new services have emerged due to better handling of protocols and development of higher standards. These new services aim for international use.

For example, standards documents produced in the United States are typically developed in English, nonetheless are also regularly translated into other tongues. European standards are slightly different as they are frequently published concurrently in English, German, and French, and possibly other languages too. Currently, almost all networking standards exist as "open" standards, managed and directed by a standards society or commerce group. Open standards are more prevalent than patented ones in the computer trade, and that's predominantly, as it pertains to networking. In fact, the scarce technologies where there no universally-accepted open standard exist have been losing compared to open standards, predominantly in the zones of home networking and wireless LANs.

Introduction

Over-all, Network Standards denote a series of classifications for Data (including Voice) Networks that are distributed by countless organizations like IEEE, ISO, TIA/EIA, and CCITT (ITU). These standards delineate how networks are theoretically meant to work in respects to design, interface, electrical, and general development standards. Protocols are information communication guidelines aimed to postulate the order and arrangement of the bits within an information stream. For instance, every time a person accesses the Internet, prints a document, sends an email, and so forth, the computer utilizes information protocols to appropriate the information in the correct form at the right time. Mutually, protocols and standards are important for people to properly design software and equipment that can inter-function with other software and equipment. It's been almost 20 years since operating first began to gain prevalence. This paper is meant to show the history of operating systems within the framework of network standards as well as describe some of the things typically attached to it and how it has evolved in almost 20 years for several operating systems and how they have or have not overcome the hurdle of proper network standards and protocols. The main obstacle with network standards is providing access internationally while also managing said access now that the internet has grown to include activity from billions of users. These standards thus present themselves as a way or organizations to evolve and overcome such obstacles in order to consistently deliver adequate services, reliability, and accessibility. Is this handled via a management or leadership protocol as standards are often frequently modified and updated? This paper takes the position of management as first initiated by the history of the internet, the OSI model, and the various organizations in control of the internet and standards and protocols.

The first step towards discussing the history of network standards is discussing the OSI model. OSI is the abbreviation for Open System Interconnection. Within the model, exists an abstract, layered description for computer network protocol design and communications. OSI operates as a model with set standard specifications meant to allow communication of data with each other, in an open manner, it is utilized to deal with the interconnection amongst systems. In essence, it helps the way in which systems interchange data. None of the model focuses on the internal function of a specific system (Faynberg, 1997, p. 45).

OSI Model

The OSI break apart the network structure into seven strata. These are: data link, network, physical, transport, presentation, session, application. The order in which information is received is first through the physical layer, then data link, then network, then transport, then session, then presentation, and finally application layer. When transmitting data, the order is then reversed making the application layer first. Both transmit and receive are connected via a physical link.

Because systems need structure and design to make process smooth and faster, a layered approach to the model allows for less impact on other layers when there is modification made on one layer. If the model only contained one layer, any modifications made would affect the entire model vs. just one layer. Protocol designers also are allotted specialization in area or layer, without concern for how many possible effects their design may have on other layers.

Layering allows separation of processes. It minimized an extremely intricate set of activities, topics, and actions into numerous, smaller, consistent groups. Understanding and learning the actions within the layers is also much easier than if done under one, single layer. Troubleshooting is also better because trouble shooing efforts are given a chance to pinpoint any suspected problem or cause of a problem more easily and quickly.

The single most significant reason to use a layered mode is for the purpose of establishing a prescribed rule for interoperability amongst various information communication tasks. For instance anything that needs to be quickly targeted and cleaned can thanks to the layered approach. It also increases security. OSI is the basis and foundation for network standards.

The seven layers of the OSI Model begin with the physical layer which is the first or lowest layer. It comprises of cabling, repeaters, and connectors and is the physical networking. This layer outlines the physical network structure as well as define the electrical and mechanical specifications for utilizing transmission medium, bit transmission encoding, and lastly, time rules. The physical layers does not grant any kind of error correction. The protocols within this layer are however, transmission-media-specific.

The second layer, the data link layer, controls or regulates communication between the physical layer and the network layer. Its main function is to separate information it received from the layer below, the network layer, and then split into distinct frames. These frames are then transmitted through use of the physical layer. The second layer organizes the first level's information into logical groups of data or "frames." It also corrects and detects errors along with controlling data flow and identifying other computer within the network.

Layer three is the Network layer. And its main function is to move information to a particular network location. It performs this actions through translation of logical addresses into the appropriate physical address. After this, the third layer chooses on the best way for the information to take from the path of sender to receiver. One important thing to note is the data link layer only operated on a single network as it relates to performing the actions of addressing. This is the opposite for the network layer that addressing only function on multiple internetworks (Faynberg, 1997).

Reliability is the main task for layer four or "transport layer." Its main function is to guarantee information sent from one computers comes reliably. This means no errors and within the correct sequence. The error control apparatus allotted by the lower layer afford for last chance error recovery. Another responsibility for the fourth layer is flow control and determining rate of transmission. Information sent via a computer, is divided and split into packets that are the supreme size that the kind of network can manage. Its job it to sequence and segment data from the host's system and then reassemble into information for a data stream on the receiving side of a host's system.

The fifth layer or session layer provides processing for regulation of dialogue among two end systems. It delineates how to begin, regulate, and finish conversations or "sessions" between applications. Users need to establish a logical connection in this layer. Passwords and log-on or log-in information is handled by the session layer. It also terminate connection and provides service like dialogue discipline. Dialogue discipline can take two forms, half duplex or full duplex. One last important function to note in the session layer is it can provide check-point processing so in case there exists a failure of any kind between checkpoints, all information can be resent from the latest or last checkpoint.

The sixth layer or presentation layer is one of the shortest layer in terms of responsibilities and uses. This layer essentially defined the format for which information is exchanged amongst two interactive entities. It also handles data encryption and data compression. This layer ensures readability and translation of multiple data formats through of a common format.

The final layer, the application layer, is the highest layer of the OSI model and interacts with application programs. This layer comprises of management functions in order to support circulated applications. Examples of this layer are remote login, electronic mail, and even file transfer. Other examples are word processing programs and spreadsheet programs. People tend to make a phrase of "All People Seem To Need Data Processing" in order to remember the multiple layers.

IEEE and other Organizations in Charge of Network Standards

It's important to fully understand the level of operating and processes within the OSI model to fully understand network standards and protocols to see how it has evolved in last 19, almost 20 years. Numerous various organizations and business have evolved to oversee network standards and has progressed to online in recent times through social platforms. To start off with, IEEE, or Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is an global society made up of engineering professionals. Their main objective is to promote education and development in the field of electrical engineering and computer science. This is the benchmark for approaching and evaluating organizations' network standards and protocols (Haase, 2012).

ISO, International Organization for Standardization consists of an assortment of organization standards that represent over 146 nations with its main object to establish global technological standards for facilitation of global exchange of data and boundary-free trade. ANSI or American National Standards comprises over 1,000 representatives from government and industry. It helps the United States set global standards. EIA and TIA helps ANSI write standards as well as sets standards for participants within the trade organization.

ITU or International Telecommunication Union, handles and controls global telecommunications like: telephony and satellite specifications, TV and radio frequencies, and applies tariffs to international communications. The ISOC or Internet Society, is a professional membership group/society that assists in establishing technical standards in the internet as well as oversees interest groups like the Internet Architecture Board or IAM and IETF or Internet Engineering Task Force.

Brief Background

In the late 1990's the DOC or U.S. Department of Commerce renovated IP addressing and domain name organization and administration. What became responsible for domain name management and IP addressing is ICANN or Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Internet Service Providers then lease addresses to businesses and individuals, essentially providing them with internet access.

1995 was the year in which NSFNET was decommissioned and in doing so, eliminated the final limitations on the use internet by business and users carrying commercial traffic. The internet has made a lasting and historical impact on commerce and culture. The design of the OSI model is integral for internet usage and plays a key part in development of network standards. Things like instant messaging, two-way interactive video calls, and now, voice over Internet Protocol have all evolved using the internet with social networking, blogs, and e-commerce taking full effect.

ARPA's research, propelled creation of packet switching network standards that were then implemented and developed by ITU or the International Telecommunication Union. Although the history of development dates back to the 1970's it was not until the 1990's that it granted the world, a global networking infrastructure.

December the publication of a consultative document on Pricing of Telecommunications Services from 1997 started the process of public discussion on the structure of price controls after July 1997 when the current controls in BT's licence expire. At present only BT is subject to price controls, with a cap of RPI-7.5% applied to a basket of main retail services. The principal proposals in the document are to introduce a network charge cap to act as a broad control on the interconnection charges which competing operators pay to BT and to move some services out of the controlled baskets where there is a clear prospect that they will be subject to increasing competition. Only a light price cap would then be applied to them, in line with OFTEL's deregulatory approach. Another document for consultation was Universal Telecommunications Services. Particular emphasis was given to looking at the telecommunications needs of educational establishments and of people with disabilities, eg hard of hearing or speech impaired. Views were sought on the possibility of a higher level of universal service for schools and, with the prospect of increased costs for delivering universal service, comments were invited on how a funding mechanism could operate (Web.archive.org, 2014).