Peer pressure in adolescence

Peer Pressure in Adolescence

The Nature Of Peer Relationships

Peer relationship among adolescent has long been recognized by educationist and psychologists as an essential part of human development. There is little doubt that peer groups and the formation of peer relationships are an important and integral part of adolescent development and growth. As one researcher sates, "...the first level of the ecology or the context of human development is the micro system... [that is] family, school, peer groups as well as the specific culture within which the family identifies" (Boujlaleb).

There is also a growing consensus among educationists and psychologists that peer influence has become even more important than family and parental guidance. In this regard the Vice President of the Institute for Youth Development, Anita Smith, has stated that; "From the time children are toddlers participate in play groups, parents wonder and worry about what seems to be an ever powerful and permeating force in our children's lives - the influence of their peers" (Smith). However, the concern about the influence of peer relationships has also to take into account that these relationships are "...vital to the social, cognitive, and physical development of children..." (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003). The search of identity and selfhood outside the family and the parents is largely determined by the peer relationships that the adolescent makes.

The positive aspects of peer relationships and especially the way that they can influence at-risk teenagers have been identified in many studies. For example, in a study by Moroz and Jones (2002) on the effects of structured peer pressure on the social involvement of socially withdrawn children were examined. In this particular study the "... findings support the use of peers as sources of positive reinforcement for the prosocial behavior of at-risk children. (Moroz & Jones, 2002, p. 235) in other words peer relationship and peer approval in particular can be an extremely effective pro-social influence. This view is also reiterated by Wiener (2004). This study relates to the way that children and adolescent with learning disabilities (LD) are aided by peer relationships. (Wiener, 2004. p.21)

On the other hand studies also show that peer relationships can also have adverse developmental consequences. More recent research has been directed at the significance and implications of the term "peer pressure" and how this can influence teenagers. In the first instance, research has shown that adolescents themselves are aware of the possible negative consequences of peer pressure.

Until recently, it was assumed that a peer's influence was always positive, especially in children's friendships. However, it has become increasingly obvious that some peer influence is largely negative. Researchers have found that friends do encourage friends to engage in undesirable and antisocial acts (e.g., fighting, smoking, drugs). (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003)

While peer relationships are an important for positive aspects of human growth, peer pressure on the other hand is associated with a number of negative social and personal consequences. Peer pressure is seen by experts as being a social force that can lead to possibly destructive and anti-social consequences. This as evidenced, for example, in various interviews with adolescents who see the causative factors for school shooting in the United States to being closely linked to peer pressure. A survey of adolescents aged between thirteen and seventeen years of age in the United States found that "...40% cited peer influence when asked why they thought the Columbine High School shooting happened" (Lashbrook, 2000, p. 747).

In essence numerous studies point out the peer pressure is often the cause of deviant and inappropriate behavior among young children and adolescents. Burton et al. (2003) discuss the fact that;

While childhood is a time where fundamental skills of social competency are learned, researchers... report that children also learn roguish, inappropriate behaviors, such as stealing and vandalizing from their peers. Findings suggest that many deviant activities need the context of a peer group for their initiation as well as their maintenance. That is, children usually do not behave mischievously on their own. (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003. p.235)

Furthermore, the power of conformism due to peer pressure and in peer relationships has been noted in a number of studies. As Burton et al. (2003) have indicated in their study, "...children who are friends consistently have similar attitudes and engage in similar behaviors. For example, if one's friend uses drugs, they will be more likely to engage in illegal drug use themselves" (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.235) There are also other form of negative behavior that can be initiated and facilitated by peer pressure. These include alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking, premarital sex, academic cheating, stealing, vandalizing, and showing disrespect to authority figures. (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003) Research demonstrates "... clear evidence of the influence of intimate friends and friendship groups on sexual behavior, the tendency towards risky driving" (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.235).

Therefore, the term peer pressure has come to mean and to be associated with a form of conformity and initiation into patterns of negative behavior that may be detrimental to long-term healthy psychological development. An essential part of peer pressure is the question of the need in the individual for identity formation and self - recognition among adolescents. Peer pressure has been defined as a form of conformity to behavior patterns dictated by others and by societal influences and the media. Another factor that should be borne in mind in the understanding of peer pressure is the parental and family relationship and how this intersects with the influence of friends and society.

2. The motivational and causative facets in peer pressure

The literature leaves little doubt about the importance of peer relationships and the extent to which peer pressure influences and even constitutes a critical determining factor in adolescent behavior. "The peer group is the center of the adolescent life-world. Adolescents spend more time with their peers than they do with their parents or alone" (Thorlindsson & Bernburg, 2006, p. 321). The realization of the significance of peer influence is also related by many researchers to the contemporary milieu and the influence of the media and popular culture. As Thorlindsson and Bernburg (2006) state:

The emergence of international, commercially driven popular youth cultures makes the peer group particularly salient for today's youth. This youth culture provides global markets that offer many commercial opportunities. These markets have been heavily targeted by the entertainment industry that promotes the culture of fun and excitement and fosters unrealistic expectations." p. 321)

At the same time this study emphasizes the fact that, "The development of a global youth culture... provided new opportunities to promote the use of alcohol and drugs among adolescents" (Thorlindsson & Bernburg, 2006, p. 321). This underscores the importance of understanding the way that the media and popular culture form part of the motivation behind conformity in instances of peer pressure.

Coupled with the above aspects are the more internal and psychological aspects of adolescent development as it relates to peer influences. As discussed, the term peer pressure has come to mean a mode of conformity to norms and patterns of behavior that may contribute to negative growth and development in adolescents. Central to peer relationships and the question of peer pressure is the need for identity formation and the developing sense of self among adolescents. There are a number of motivational factors that can add to the force and attractive power of peer pressure. These include the influence of the media; which is an aspect that will be explored in the following sections of this paper.

It is generally accepted by developmental psychologists that adolescence is that age when the young person "...must set up an identity to escape identity diffusion and confusion..." (Boujlaleb) Usually during this period of development adolescents tend to pay more attention to friends and peers than to parents in the process of developing character and personality traits that are acceptable to their age group. This increased influence of peers tends to become a dominating factor in the lives of young people at this age.

There are a wide range of variables that have to be taken into account in the overall understanding of the functioning of peer pressure. One important point noted in the literature is that the adolescent development does not take place in isolation from other factors. By this is meant that many factors interweave in this period of growth, including family influences, parental relationships, as well as the influence of friends and peers. Within this flux of relationships and demands on the adolescent, peer pressure can result from problems within the family structure.

As teens cope with the developmental tasks of adolescence, their families and peer groups present them with both opportunities and risks... The simultaneous effects of both family and peer domains on problem behaviors and the relationships between the early family environment and peer experiences that predict adolescent problem behaviors. Childhood and adolescent predictors were significantly associated with adolescent problem behaviors (Garnier & Stein, 2002. p.45) study by Garnier & Stein (2002) highlights the importance of processes that link family and peer contexts over time in the development of adolescent problem behaviors. The findings of this study support the view that the effects of peer pressure are related to earlier processes in childhood. This has led to the recognized research imperative to "...include longitudinal data from both peer and family contexts in studies of trajectories leading to adolescent problem behaviors" (p.45). In other words, the study points to the importance of a more holistic approach to understanding the motivational impetus and effects of peer pressure which takes into account both home experiences and experiences with peers and the way that these factors in combination effect development in children and young adults. As the study states: "What children learn at home from their parents, they bring to the peer group" (Garnier & Stein, 2002, p 45).

Types of peer pressure

The literature also refers to the different types of peer pressure and influences that have been defined and classified. These different types are important as they shed light on the actual mechanism of peer influence. Burton et al. (2003) suggests that "...understanding peer influence could be enhanced by linking children's friendship research with social-psychological theories of interpersonal influence and... work on social power" (p.235). This stance supports the view that the mechanism and process of peer pressure is best seen in an analysis of the ways that peers manipulate one another. This has resulted in a typology of peer influence and relationships.

The first of these is peer influence through reinforcement and reward. As Burton et al. state; "Reward refers to anything that promotes a behavior being repeated in the future. Among friends, reward is often times the companionship and support that friends provide..." (p.235) the use of reward and reinforcement through friendship can be an extremely powerful motivator and influence among peers. This can be a factor in, for example, peer pressure that encourages drinking among peers. (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.236) Furthermore, this is also related to the concept of modeling, where an adolescent may observe another peer being reinforced or rewarded and adopt this behavior.

Another motivator and reinforcement that adds to peer pressure is companionship. This is also a powerful form of pressure in adolescents who need to "belong" or those who are isolated or are outsiders. It should be noted that reinforcement and reward can be seen in both a negative and positive sense. For example, "Reinforcement is equally seen in antisocial situations. A friend might say, 'If you smoke with us, we can all be friends' "(Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.236). As mentioned above, modeling is a type of conformity that is often seen in groups. This involves "... The imitating of one person's behavior to another person's behavior as a consequence of direct or symbolic observation" (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.236). An adolescent may model his or her behavior on others that they admire or like. This is also related to what is theoretically known as referent power. An example of this form of peer influence can be seen in studies of withdrawn children. In one particular study withdrawn children were shown videos of socially competent peers interacting. "After viewing the videos, withdrawn children became more sociable in their interactions with other children" (Burton, Ray & Mehta, 2003, p.236).

3. Consequences of negative peer pressure.

Various studies emphasize that peer influence in the modern world has an enormous influence on children and adolescents. This is mainly due to the reality that "...teens spend more time with peers and less with families during their transition into adulthood, peers have the most important influence on their day-to-day behaviors" (Garnier & Stein, 2002, p.45). The literature also emphasizes that more and more studies indicate "... peer influences as a key construct in the etiology and maintenance of adolescents' reckless behavior" (Bradley & Wildman, 2002). Similar studies also show that there is a declining degree of influence in peer pressure over time and that "...pressure from peers to engage in misconduct moved from a relatively strong discouraging position in younger adolescents to a more neutral or encouraging position in older adolescents" (Bradley & Wildman, 2002, p.253).

However, there is definitive research data that shows that peer pressure and deviant companions can result in risk taking and various forms of delinquent behavior. (Thorlindsson & Bernburg, 2006) Educationist and criminologists claim that there is a strong correlation between deviant peers and mechanisms of peer pressure and the transference of deviant attitudes, values and actions. (Garnier & Stein, 2002) This refers to issues such as drug abuse, delinquency and other forms of socially unacceptable behavior. In an empirical study of adolescences and deviate peer pressure by Garnier and Stein (2002) it was found that, " Drug use and delinquency are typically social behaviors, and the adolescents in this study tended to become involved in the same behaviors as their friends" (p.253). The study also found that "...their involvement in one type of behavior significantly increased the likelihood of involvement in other problem behaviors. Teens who engage in problem behaviors generally are inclined to associate with other teens who are involved in similar behaviors" (p.253).

This correlation between delinquency and other forms of negative social behavior is also reiterated in many other studies. In a study of reckless behavior among adolescent and young people it was found that there was a greater emphasis on peer pressure and reckless behavior among males than among female adolescents. (Bradley & Wildman, 2002, p.253) This study also paints a picture of male respondents as being more influenced by stereotypical idea of male behavior such as nonconforming and bold action, which are supported by modeling and peer pressure.

More importantly in this study it was found that, "...the extent to which 18-25-year-olds are influenced by their peers to adopt antisocial or unconventional behaviors predicts these individuals' involvement in a range of reckless behavior (and) has broader implications" (Bradley & Wildman, 200. p. 253). This refers to the hypothesis that adolescent peer pressure and the development of antisocial activities may be continued into adulthood and has consequences for later adult experience and behavior.

Beside the fact that peer pressure can lead to drug and alcohol abuse, as well as a myriad of other negative behavior patterns, one of the most disconcerting results of peer pressure is the isolation and targeting of those who do not conform to peer standards and value systems set up by peer pressure groups in contemporary society. This refers particularly to the forms of aggressive bullying and victimization that has been prevalent in American schools in recent years; and which have been blamed for many acts of violence in our schools. In a recent (2004) study on this issue it was found that, "...of over 15,000 junior high and high school students found that 8.4% of those surveyed reported being bullied once a week or more during the current semester" (Dill et al., 2004, p.159) the results of this form of victimization can be extremely debilitating with possible long-term effects. "Of greatest concern, repeated victimization produces insidious, potentially debilitating effects, including increased anger and depression, low self-esteem, and social withdrawal" (Dill et al., 2004, p.159). This factor is aligned with peer rejection. Coleman and Byrd (2003) describe this connection between peer pressure, rejection and victimization. "Peers are typically relied upon heavily during adolescence for emotional support and friendship; however, relations with peers are at times colored by predominantly negative experiences that may constitute peer victimization" (Coleman & Byrd, 2003, p 301). In this light peer victimization is defined as "actions taken by one or more youths with the intention of inflicting physical or psychological injury or pain on another youth"(Coleman & Byrd, 2003, p 301). There has been a considerable amount of research focused on the problem of peer victimization, the ways that if effects adolescent behavior and possible strategies to combat this phenomenon in schools.