Why Are Primary Math Scores Still Declining

Table of Contents

Page

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The Research Problem ……....

Background and Justification……….……………………………………….……..

Deficiencies in Evidence………………………………….……………………….

Audience

Setting of the Study

Researcher’s Role

Purpose of the Study

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Theoretical Perspective

Problem Statement

Instructional Factors

Individual Factors

Teacher Perspectives

Beliefs

Instructional Strategies

Student Motivation

Curriculum

Teacher Competency

Self-efficacy

Research Questions

Summary

Conclusion

Identifying the Causes of Declining Mathematics Performance among Elementary Students

Chapter One: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The problem of interest to the proposed study concerns a significant problem in elementary education, particularly the sustained decrease in students’ mathematics performance between lower and upper elementary grades in recent years. Although this decline in mathematics performance has been attributed to various factors, the research to date confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic has had significant adverse effects on mathematics achievement among elementary school students in the United States (Oostdam et al., 2024). Indeed, significant learning delays were experienced by many young learners as school closures and the rapid transition to remote learning disrupted traditional educational practices, leaving many students struggling to grasp mathematical concepts without in-person, classroom instruction (Oostdam et al., 2024).

The lack of face-to-face interactions with teachers and peers due to varying lengths of state-level lockdowns hindered collaborative learning and immediate feedback, which are crucial for developing mathematical skills. In this regard, Jason (2024) emphasizes that, “In March 2020, the nationwide response to the COVID-19 global pandemic was to close all schools, disrupting the educational process for students, which may have caused significant learning loss, particularly in elementary mathematics” (p. 172).

While longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate this diminished performance level with more precision, what is known for certain at present is that even prior to the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent school closures, the nation’s youth were suffering a sustained decline that warrants the attention of parents, policymakers and educators alike (Reading and Mathematics Scores for 9-Year-Olds Decline during Pandemic. Results from 2022 NAEP Long-Term Trend Assessment, 2022).

In addition, the digital divide exacerbated existing inequalities, with some students lacking access to necessary technology or reliable internet connections for online learning (Cheung et al., 2023). As a result, many elementary school students experienced learning losses in mathematics, with some studies indicating that students fell behind by several months during the height of the pandemic compared to typical academic progress in previous years (Boughammer, 2023). These learning losses are difficult to make up (if they ever are), and an entire generation of young learners is confronted with a future of trying with mixed success to just catch up with their counterparts from previous generations.

Further, the adverse impact of the pandemic has been especially pronounced among students from disadvantaged backgrounds, potentially widening achievement gaps and creating long-term challenges for mathematics education in the United States. With the focus on 1st to 2nd grade and 3rd to 5th grade, the current observation is that there is a considerable decline in the mastery of mathematical skills when students transition to upper elementary school, an issue that forms the basis for the research problem of interest to the proposed study which is discussed further below.

The Research Problem

The specific problem to be studied is the evident disparity in students’ mathematics performance in lower elementary grades (1st and 2nd) compared to their performance in upper elementary grades (3rd to 5th). Several studies to date have indicated that mathematical competence is a crucial factor in children’s academic success and future career opportunities, making this decline a significant concern for parents, teachers and lawmakers alike (Ramirez et al., 2022). Despite this growing body of evidence, there is still a lack of understanding about why this achievement gap is occurring and how it can be most effectively addressed (Ryan et al., 2021). This achievement gap is critically important for a number of reasons, including most especially those discussed below.

Background and Justification

Recent research has shown that students’ ability to grasp mathematical concepts significantly impacts their academic progress and future career prospects (Ramirez et al., 2013). Another study found that strong early math skills are a robust predictor of later academic achievement, even more than early reading skills (Duncan et al., 2007). No one questions the importance of math skills, but there is a noticeable decline in these skills among students as they progress from lower to upper elementary school (Salters, 2019). There remains a need for a more in-depth exploration of the causes of this decline, the potential consequences, and the most effective interventions (Fyfe et al., 2012).

Deficiencies in the Evidence

Although there is evidence of this problem, there is a deficiency in the literature regarding why it occurs (Salters, 2019). The current research tends to focus more on the existence of the problem rather than the underlying causes or potential solutions. There is a need for comprehensive research to explore factors such as curriculum design, teaching methodologies, student engagement, or possible cognitive developmental factors that might contribute to this decline. Further exploration of this topic will add to the literature by offering insights into the causes of the observed decline and suggesting potential interventions to mitigate this issue (Niemivirta et al., 2024).

Audience

The primary audience for this research will be primary level mathematic educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers in the field of elementary education. In addition, another audience for the findings that emerge from this and comparable study is parents and guardians would also benefit from understanding this issue to support their children’s mathematical learning in the home.

Setting of the Study

The study will be conducted in elementary schools across diverse districts in the United States, focusing on students transitioning from lower elementary (1st and 2nd grades) to upper elementary (3rd to 5th grades). This setting will allow for a comprehensive examination of the decline in mathematics performance across different demographics and educational environments. The research will involve classroom observations, analysis of student performance data, and interviews with teachers, students, and parents.

By encompassing a range of primary school settings, from urban to rural and varying socioeconomic backgrounds, the study seeks to capture and present a holistic view of the multiple antecedental factors contributing to the current mathematics achievement gap among elementary students in the United States. This timely and evidence-based information can then be used to identify opportunities to implement specific interventions that can address the achievement gap in meaningful ways, making the role of the researcher especially important as noted further below.

Researcher’s Role

As the primary investigator, the researcher will be responsible for designing and implementing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and objectively interpreting the results. To this end, the researcher will collaborate with school administrators to gain access to classrooms and student performance records while ensuring all ethical guidelines and privacy regulations are strictly followed (Kwame & Petrucka, 2024).

Likewise, the researcher will also conduct structured interviews with teachers, students, and parents to gather qualitative data on perceptions and experiences related to mathematics education. Throughout the study, the researcher will maintain objectivity and adhere to rigorous scientific methods to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings. In addition, all appropriate institutional review board approval will be obtained if necessary. The researcher’s role will also involve synthesizing the collected data to identify patterns, draw conclusions, and propose evidence-based interventions to address the observed decline in mathematics performance.

Purpose of the Study

This purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between teacher perspectives, instructional strategies, and student performance within different educational contexts to identify the causes of the decline in mathematics performance and, based on the findings, propose potential interventions. In doing so, these findings could contribute substantially to improving teaching methodologies with more effective curriculum design, so as ultimately to achieve better student outcomes in elementary mathematics education.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Theoretical Perspective

The problem of declining mathematics performance in upper elementary grades is grounded in the Social Cognitive Theory. This theory was originally developed by Albert Bandura in 1986 and was primarily used to study how individuals learn in social contexts. The Social Cognitive Theory indicates that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. According to this theory, students' learning and academic performance can be influenced by their social interactions, personal factors, and environmental factors, such as their teachers' instructional strategies and competence.

The map depicted in Figure 1 below presents a visual overview of how the selected literature fits within the broader categories of instructional factors and individual factors, both of which potentially contribute to the problem statement under consideration. The hierarchical structure signifies the flow of topics under each category, ultimately connecting them to the problem statement.

Literature Map

Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective

Figure 1. Literature Map

Problem Statement

As noted in Chapter One above, the problem of interest concerns the sustained decline in students’ mathematics performance in upper elementary grades compared to their performance in lower elementary grades (Social Cognitive Theory).

Instructional Factors

Teacher perspectives: Oppermann, E., Brunner, M., & Anders, Y. (2019). The interplay between preschool teachers' science self-efficacy beliefs, their teaching practices, and girls' and boys' early science motivation. Learning and Individual Differences, 70, 86-99.

Engledowl, C., Webel, C., & Yeo, S. (2021). Profiles of Elementary Teachers' Use of Mathematics Curriculum Materials and the Influence of Teacher Expertise. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 16(2).

Beliefs: Schoen, R. C., & LaVenia, M. (2019). Teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning: Identifying and clarifying three constructs. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1599488.

Instructional strategies: Dahal, N., Luitel, B. C., & Pant, B. P. (2019). Understanding the use of questioning by mathematics teachers: A revelation. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 5(1), 118-146.

Curriculum: Bovill, C., & Woolmer, C. (2019). How conceptualisations of curriculum in higher education influence student-staff co-creation in and of the curriculum. Higher Education, 78(3), 407-422.

Teacher competency: Lee, J., & Santagata, R. (2020). A longitudinal study of novice primary school teachers’ knowledge and quality of mathematics instruction. ZDM, 52, 295-309.

Individual Factors

Student motivation: El-Adl, A., & Alkharusi, H. (2020). Relationships between Self-Regulated Learning Strategies, Learning Motivation and Mathematics Achievement. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 15(1), 104-111.

Xia, Q., Yin, H., Hu, R., Li, X., & Shang, J. (2022). Motivation, Engagement, and Mathematics Achievement: An Exploratory Study Among Chinese Primary Students. SAGE Open, 12(4), 21582440221134609.

Self-efficacy: Falco, L. D. (2020). An intervention to support mathematics self-efficacy in middle school. In Integrative and Interdisciplinary Curriculum in the Middle School (pp. 37-66). Routledge.

Needs: Morris, C., & Hiebert, J. (2019). Kelcey, B., Hill, H. C., & Chin, M. J. (2019). Teacher mathematical knowledge, instructional quality, and student outcomes: a multilevel quantile mediation analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 30(4), 398-431.

The foregoing themes are highlighted in Table 1 below which summarizes a series of relevant studies in primary mathematics education.

Table 1

Summary of mathematics instruction studies

Theme

Reference

Study Description

Data Collection Approach

Summary of Results

Instructional Factors

Teacher Perspectives

Oppermann et al., 2019

The study explores the relationship between preschool teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, their teaching practices, and student motivation.

Questionnaires were used to gather data on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and teaching practices, and students' motivation.

Findings showed that teachers' beliefs significantly influence their teaching practices, which in turn affect students' motivation.

Engledowl et al., 2021

This study profiles elementary teachers' use of math curriculum materials and their influence on teacher expertise.

Data were collected through surveys and classroom observations.

The study found a significant relationship between teachers' use of curriculum materials and their expertise in teaching.

Beliefs

Schoen & LaVenia, 2019

The study identifies and clarifies three constructs of teacher beliefs about math teaching and learning.

Surveys and interviews were used to gather data on teachers' beliefs about math teaching and learning.

Results demonstrated that teachers' beliefs play a significant role in the instruction and learning of mathematics.

Instructional Strategies

Dahal et al., 2019

This paper explores the use of questioning as an instructional strategy by math teachers.

Classroom observations were used to analyze teachers' questioning strategies.

The study showed that teachers' questioning strategies significantly influence students' engagement and understanding in math.

Curriculum

Bovill & Woolmer, 2019

The paper studies how curriculum conceptualizations influence student-teacher co-creation in the curriculum.

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and document analysis.

The study found that how the curriculum is conceptualized significantly affects student-teacher co-creation.

Teacher Competency

Lee & Santagata, 2020

This longitudinal study investigates novice primary school teachers' knowledge and quality of math instruction.

Classroom observations and teacher interviews were used to collect data.

The study concluded that teachers' knowl-edge significantly influences the quality of their math instruction.

Individual Factors

Student Motivation

El-Adl & Alkharusi, 2020

The study explores the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies, learning motivation, and math achievement.

Surveys were used to gather data on students' self-regulated learning strategies and motivation.

Results indicated a positive relationship between students' self-regulated learning strategies, motivation, and math achievement.

Xia et al., 2022

This exploratory study investigates motivation, engagement, and math achievement among Chinese primary students.

Surveys and tests were used to measure students' motivation, engagement, and math achievement.

The study found a significant relationship between students' motivation, engagement, and math achievement.

Self-efficacy

Falco, 2020

This study presents an intervention to support math self-efficacy in middle school.

Pre- and post-tests were used to measure students' math self-efficacy before and after the intervention.

The intervention was found to significantly improve students' math self-efficacy.

Needs

Kelcey et al., 2019

The study analyzes the effects of teacher mathematical knowledge, instructional quality, and student outcomes.

Classroom observations, teacher interviews, and student achievement data were used.

Findings revealed a significant relationship between teacher mathematical knowledge, instructional quality, and student outcomes.

The summary depicted in Table 1 above reveals several key themes in mathematics education research. For example, under the “Instructional Factors” theme, studies explored various aspects of teaching mathematics. Teacher perspectives were found to significantly influence teaching practices and student motivation, with teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and use of curriculum materials playing important roles. Likewise teachers’ beliefs about math teaching and learning were identified as crucial factors in instruction and learning outcomes. Instructional strategies, particularly questioning techniques, were shown to impact student engagement and understanding. The conceptualization of curriculum was found to affect student-teacher co-creation, while teacher competency, especially in novice primary school teachers, was linked to the quality of math instruction.

With respect to the “Individual Factors” theme, research focused on student-related aspects. Studies consistently found positive relationships between students' self-regulated learning strategies, motivation, engagement, and math achievement. An intervention aimed at improving math self-efficacy in middle school students proved effective. Additionally, teacher mathematical knowledge was found to have a significant impact on instructional quality and student outcomes. These findings highlight the complex interplay between teacher-related factors, instructional approaches, and student characteristics in mathematics education, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to improve math achievement in elementary and middle school settings and these issues are discussed further below.

Teacher Perspectives

A frequently overlooked but critical issue concerning the sustained decline in mathematics performance is the perspective of the teachers who are on the front lines of delivering element classroom instruction (Roncevic Zubkovic et al., 2023). For instance, Opperman et al. (2019) investigated the intricate relationship between preschool teachers’ science self-efficacy beliefs, their teaching practices, and the motivation of their students. These researchers collected data through questionnaires and discovered that teachers’ perspectives about learning significantly influenced their teaching practices, which subsequently affected student motivation. This underscores the crucial role teachers' self-beliefs play in their effectiveness in teaching, and paves the way for the next study by Engledowl, Webel, & Yeo (2021).

By contrast, Engledowl et al. (2021) focused their research on the different ways elementary teachers use mathematics curriculum materials and how their expertise influences this usage. The data that emerged from this study, collected through surveys and classroom observations, highlighted a strong correlation between how teachers utilize curriculum materials and their proficiency in teaching. Their study also underscored the importance of understanding teacher beliefs, the focus of the next factor.

Beliefs

Beyond the foregoing findings, a growing body of research indicates that teacher beliefs concerning optimal instructional strategies are important considerations in primary mathematics education (Kiliçaslan, 2023). Supporting that view, Schoen and LaVenia (2019) sought to identify and clarify three constructs related to teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning. By gathering data through surveys and interviews, they discovered that teachers' beliefs significantly impact the teaching and learning processes. This, in turn, emphasizes the significance of effective instructional strategies, the next theme in this review, are instructional strategies discussed below.

Instructional Strategies

Instructional strategies play a crucial role in shaping elementary school students' mathematics achievement. Research has shown that interactive, student-centered approaches, such as problem-based learning and collaborative group work, can significantly enhance mathematical understanding and retention. Likewise, the use of concrete manipulatives and visual representations, particularly in the early grades, has been found to improve students' grasp of abstract mathematical concepts, leading to better overall performance in mathematics.

To that end, Dahal et al. (2019) concentrated on understanding the use of questioning as an instructional strategy by mathematics teachers. Their data, collected from classroom observations, unveiled a direct influence of teachers' questioning strategies on students' engagement and understanding of the material, thereby stressing the critical role of effective teaching strategies. These strategies are partially shaped by the curriculum, the subject of the following research.

Curriculum

A study by Bovill and Woolmer (2019) explored how curriculum conceptualizations influence student-teacher co-creation. They used semi-structured interviews and document analysis to collect data, and concluded that how we perceive and design curriculum significantly affects student-teacher co-creation, pointing out the critical role of teacher competency which is discussed further below.

Teacher Competency

Most adults can vividly remember the best – and the worst – teachers they had during their academic careers. Indeed, competent teachers can make all the difference, paribus ceteris, between success and failure in mathematics performance. For example, Lee and Santagata (2020) conducted a longitudinal study that assessed novice primary school teachers' knowledge and the quality of their mathematics instruction. Classroom observations and teacher interviews provided the data for their study. They concluded that a teacher's knowledge profoundly influences their instructional quality. This finding transitions us to the second major theme: individual factors.

Even the most dedicated, talented and otherwise-committed teachers, though, may lack the specific competencies that are needed to most effectively communicate the fundamentals of mathematics to young learners. In this regard, a study by Baier et al. (2019) concluded that, “Teachers differ substantially in their instructional performance in the classroom. Thus, researchers and policymakers are interested in how these differences can be explained and how the instruction provided by low?performing teachers can be improved” (p. 767).

In addition, the educational axiom that if students are not learning the way they are being taught, they must be taught the way the learn is particularly relevant to mathematics education. Anecdotally, this writer recalls with some satisfaction the “a-ha” moment that swept our third-grade classroom when the frustrated teacher finally exclaimed, “Take the bottom number and put it on the top and the top number on the bottom” instead of referring to them as “denominators” and “numerators” when multiplying fractions. Everyone then completely understood what the terms meant and how the fraction multiplication function worked and everyone was not only relieved, their corresponding level of self-efficacy and motivation to learn about more about math increased as a result. The same type of outcome should be the goal of all competent mathematics teachers, and this optimal result has been shown to improve student motivation towards learning mathematics as discussed further below.

Student Motivation

Notwithstanding the demonstrated importance of mathematics for students in their personal lives and professional careers, far too many young people not only dislike learning math they actively disdain the process. After all, in the not-too-distant past, young American girls were counseled by their Barbie dolls that, “Math is hard!,” and young American boys were widely regarded as egg-heads and nerds if they expressed an interest in mathematics. It is little wonder, then, that student motivation levels play a critical role in how enthusiastically and therefore earnestly young people approach their mathematics education.

With respect to student motivation, El-Adl & Alkharusi (2020) explored the relationships between self-regulated learning strategies, learning motivation, and mathematics achievement. They used surveys to collect data and found a positive correlation among these factors. Their results established a connection between motivation and self-efficacy, emphasized in the subsequent study. Accompanying the foregoing study, Xia et al. (2022) performed an exploratory study to investigate the relationship among motivation, engagement, and mathematics achievement among Chinese primary students. These researchers collected data through surveys and tests, highlighting a significant correlation among these elements, leading to the next focus area, self-efficacy, or an individual’s belief in their ability and capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments in various situations or tasks (Erdogan & Yildiz, 2021), which are discussed further below.

Self-efficacy

As a potential antecedent to student motivation, a study by Falco (2020) aimed to introduce an intervention to support mathematics self-efficacy in middle school students. Using pre- and post-tests to measure changes in students' self-efficacy, they found that the intervention significantly improved students’ confidence in their abilities. It is not surprising that confident young people approach new challenges in mathematics instruction in a more positive fashion, which in turn translates into more effective learning.

This improvement is potentially linked to the satisfaction of student needs, which in turns fuels their individual sense of self-efficacy to achieve more. For example, a study by Erdogan and Yildiz (2021) concerning problem posing (PP) self-efficacy beliefs in mathematics classrooms found that:

Self-efficacy is the belief of an individual to successfully organize and execute the procedures necessary to achieve a specific. Based on the concepts of PP and self-efficacy, the definition of PP self-efficacy belief can be obtained. PP self-efficacy belief can be defined as the self-judgment of an individual to concretely explain past mathematical experiences with the help of various strategies, taking into account existing mathematical problems, different mathematical representations. (p. 229)

Indeed, this same process mirrors the anecdote related above, and self-efficacious elementary school students enjoy a competitive advantage in the mathematics classroom which will help improve their future abilities to understand more complex problems. These types of critical thinking skills are also applicable to virtually all other aspects of the human condition, so this is an important issue for elementary school mathematics teachers to consider when formulating their educational strategies.

Summary

This literature review highlighted two key thematic areas influencing the decline in students' mathematics performance in upper elementary grades: instructional factors and individual factors. Under instructional factors, studies (Oppermann et al., 2019; Engledowl et al., 2021) showed that teacher perspectives, particularly their beliefs about their own teaching efficacy, greatly influence their teaching practices and, in turn, student motivation. Schoen & LaVenia (2019) emphasized the impact of teachers’ beliefs about mathematics on the teaching-learning processes.