Representation in Algebra: A Problem

Representation in Algebra: A Problem Solving Approach The need for a solid background in mathematics for high school and college students in the 21st century is well documented (Katz & Barton 2007). A number of emerging career fields in the Age of Information are directly related to mathematical knowledge. For instance, Conaway and Rennolds emphasize that the "With the onset of the technological age, students must complete as much math as possible during high school.

Mathematical skills are essential to gaining access to college and pursuing a career in a math-, science-, or technologically related field. A student's mathematical ability can be a determining factor in choosing a career" (2003, p. 218). Indeed, the ten fastest-growing career fields in the United States today include five fields that are specifically focused on mathematics knowledge, including computer engineers, computer support specialists, systems analysts, database administrators, and desktop publishing specialists (Conaway & Reynolds 2003).

Clearly, young learners who continue their pursuit of higher mathematics throughout their high school and college years will enjoy additional career opportunities and a competitive advantage over those who do not (Conaway & Reynolds, 2003). Experienced mathematics teachers, though, can verify that engaging young people in the learning process can be a challenging endeavor under the best circumstances, and the effort involved in acquiring a solid foundation in algebra and other higher mathematics can likewise be a challenging experience for many young learners as well.

In some cases, some young people become so discouraged and frustrated with their lack of progress at learning the concepts that are involved that they withdraw from the algebra curriculum entirely, never to return. There are some steps that teachers can take, though, to assist young algebra learners overcome this frustration by helping them make the mental connection between the representational aspects of algebraic equations and what they mean.

For example, Juter (2003) points out that there is a point at which students are able to make the mental leap required to make the logical connections that are needed for a thorough understanding of what is involved rather than just the mechanics. In this regard, Juter notes that teaching methods that have concentrated on plausible reasoning have largely failed to assist students in achieving this mental leap; however, there are some innovative approaches such as conceptual knowledge that have been shown to facilitate this process in young learners.

According to Juter, "Conceptual knowledge has an emphasis on relations. The items of a notion are connected through relations and together they form a mental web. A part of conceptual knowledge cannot be thought of as a disjointed piece of information. Conceptual knowledge develops via construction of relations between items" (2003, p. 17). The key to success appears to be directly related to helping students understand the connection between the relational aspects involved in algebra in ways that are relevant to what they already know.

For instance, Juter adds that, "The items can be other relations or concepts where the connection can be between two (or more) items that are existing already in the mind or between a new and an existing item. When this connection is created, the result often becomes more than its parts jointly. Parts with no prior relations become connected and suddenly more things fit together" (2003, p. 17).

While these mental leaps have already been made by the experienced algebra teacher and are therefore largely taken for granted, helping young people do the same thing is a much more challenging enterprise and these issues are discussed further below. Findings from Existing Literature Unfortunately, the research is consistent in showing that there is no "one-size-fits-all" approach that is best suited for facilitating the mental leap needed to understand representation in algebra, and effective teaching methods require techniques that draw on students' individual strengths in problem solving operations.

It is also important to encourage young learners to overcome a mere rote memory and functional approach to performing such algebraic problem solving by helping them see the "big picture" that is involved by helping them relate the underlying mathematical concepts to what they have learned in the past. In this regard, Osta and Labban report that, "Existing research on students' abilities to model and solve problems using algebra focused mainly on interpreting symbols, formulating and solving equations, constructing and interpreting graphic representations" (2008, p. 2).

When they are initially confronted with letters instead of numbers, students learning algebra may find the transition from the mathematics they have been learning so different that they cannot achieve the mental leap needed to associate these representational elements with what they already know. As Osta and Labban point out, "Most research conducted on the subject tried to analyze the difficulties that students face in understanding the meanings of the unknown and the equality sign.

These difficulties are mostly identified when algebra is taught as an independent isolated course, causing a sudden shift from arithmetic, and when it is seen as a set of formal procedures and rules to be memorized and applied in a rote fashion" (2008, p. 2). Semantics, then, can also play an important role as one teacher's use of descriptors and narrative will influence student perceptions of these concepts (Conway & Reynolds 2003).

The results of the study by these researchers indicate that making these vital connections can provide young learners with a more comprehensive understanding of semantic as well as the procedural knowledge required to achieve successful academic outcomes so that more young students will pursue higher mathematics coursework in their college and professional careers (Conway & Reynolds 2003).

According to Tall and Vinner, there are also some fundamental challenges involved in even communicating the definition of a concept when teaching algebra to young people: "We shall regard the concept definition to be a form of words used to specify that concept. It may be learnt by an individual in a rote fashion or more meaningfully learnt and related to a greater or lesser degree to the concept as a whole" (1981, p. 152).

Although rote memory and drill has its place in algebra instruction, there is also a need for other problem-solving techniques that allow students to formulate their own conceptualizations of what is required to solve an equation. For example, Tall and Vinner add that, "It may also be a personal reconstruction by the student of a definition. It is then the form of words that the student uses for his own explanation of his (evoked) concept image.

Whether the concept definition is given to him or constructed by himself, he may vary it from time to time" (p. 152). Likewise, according to Mason, Graham and Johnson-Wilder (2005), generalization activity in algebra instruction has its foundation in the use of algebraic notation as a tool that can be used for expressing proofs and helping students visualize the representational aspects that are involved in solving problems.

It is important to note that these alternative personal constructions may be just as valid and effective as the formal methods being used by the teacher, emphasizing the fact that different students learn in different ways. According to Tall and Vinner, "In this way a personal concept definition can differ from a formal concept definition, the latter being a concept definition which is accepted by the mathematical community at large.

For each individual a concept definition generates its own concept image (which might, in a flight of fancy be called the 'concept definition image'). This is, of course, part of the concept image" (p. 152). According to Williams (1991), "The limit concept has long been considered fundamental to an understanding of calculus and real analysis, but recent studies have confirmed that a complete understanding of the limit concept among students is comparatively rare.

Conceptions of limit are often confounded by issues of whether a function can reach its limits, whether a limit is actually a bound, whether limits are dynamic processes or static objects, and whether limits are inherently tied to motion concepts" (p. 219). According to Lauten, Graham and Ferrini-Mundy (1994), "Several researchers in mathematics education have been interested in aspects of secondary college students' understanding of function.

Collected research in this area has shown that most secondary and post secondary school students are tied to a definition of a function being represented by a rule of correspondence, unvarying over its entire domain. Piecewise defined functions present great difficulty, particularly in moving from the graphical to algebraic mode of thinking" (p. 227).

Based on their cross-curricular structured-probe task-based clinical interviews of 44 pairs of third-year high-school mathematics students, the majority of whom were high achievers, to identify their problem-solving approaches for various algebraic linear equations (of the form ax ± b = cx ± d), Huntley, Marcus, Kahan and Miller (2007) found that most pairs of students were able to solve the equation resulting in a unique solution using symbol-manipulation algorithms or through the use of a graphical approach that made the algebraic representations that were involved more concrete and apparent.

These researchers add that, "On the equations resulting in an identity or a contradiction, most student pairs did not know how to interpret the results of their symbol manipulation, and few turned to another representation when symbol manipulation failed them" (Huntley et al. 2007, p. 115). Likewise, a study by Wyndhamm and Saljo found that young algebra learners were more successful in their problem-solving efforts when collaborating in a group environment.

According to these researchers, "An experiment involving 14 small groups of Swedish students (usually 3 per group) aged 10, 11, and 12 years shows that these students acting in groups and creating shared contextualizations were able to solve mathematics word problems calling for real-world knowledge. Research has shown students acting alone to have difficulty with the same types of problems" (Wyndhamm & Saljo 1997, p. 361). Other teachers report that algebra story problems can help make learning more relevant to young people's lives.

For instance, according to Homann and Lulay, "Algebra story problems are an important practical application of mathematics since real-world problems usually do not arise in terms of equations but as verbal or pictorial representations. The problems are solved by understanding, abstraction, and transformation of these representations into symbolic equational forms which can be solved by algebraic algorithms" (1996, p. 1). Likewise, Laughbaum makes the point that, "Our students see relationships in their lives, but do not know that the study of functions is the tool for analyzing and understanding them.

What our students must be taught is to recognize and understand these mathematical relationships in the world they live in now, and will live in as adults" (2003, p. 64). Even here, though, there are some constraints to learning. For example, Dillon and Sternberg emphasize that, "Problem solving involves building a representation of the words of the problem and finding the solution of the problem using the rules of algebra.

A major difficulty in students' performance on word problems seems to involve representation of the problem, i.e., moving from the words in the problem to a coherent mental representation of the problem. One major subcomponent in the representation process for word problems in the translation of each sentence" (1986, p. 145).

Critical Evaluation from Own Experience The argument has been made that some subjects, such as Shakespeare, should not be taught until students reach college because they do not possess the requisite maturity, life experience and interest that are needed to pursue them. The same argument can be made for teaching algebra at the secondary level, of course, but these arguments are misguided and do young learners a disservice. According to Stacey and MacGregor, "Algebra is hard to teach and hard to learn.

[However], with commitment it is possible to teach a large proportion of the school population" (1999, p. 58). Therefore, when teachers take the time to explain the fundamentals that are involved in representation in algebra, most students are able to overcome their initial fear of the unknown and make the mental leap that is needed to understand how linear equations operate.

In this regard, Staszkow suggests that teachers should seek to eliminate the mystery involved and just explain to students that, "To understand what algebra is all about, you must realize that, in algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers. Just as you operated with numbers in arithmetic, in algebra you simply replace those numbers with letters and work with them" (1986, p. 327).

These types of elementary explanations that introduce the fundamental representational concepts that are involved in algebra will likely go a long way in reducing the initial anxiety that can result from being introduced to algebraic concepts that may appear to be so much arcane and unattainable mumbo-jumbo to young learners (Russell & O'Dwyer 2009). As Stacey and MacGregor point out, "Outside the algebra sections of their textbooks, students rarely see algebraic letters used except in formulas or as labels indicating the quantity to be found in diagrams or formulas.

Their exercises almost always have numerical (rather than algebraic) answers" (1999, p. 58). Indeed, some students appear to mirror the adverse reaction to being presented with learning algebra as being a form of severe punishment in the same fashion that humorist Dave Barry did when Sputnik was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957 and his mathematics teacher told his class that, "We would have to learn a LOT more math, as if it was our fault" (1989, p. 139).

By helping young learners understand that algebra is not in fact a type of "punishment" and that the rules involved in solving algebraic problems are readily accessible and understandable with some effort, the first step to achieving the mental leap needed to successfully recognize the representational elements involved in algebra will have been made.

Certainly, while it is important to stress the "what's-in-it-for-me" aspects of learning algebra to students, this importance may not be readily appreciated by young learners who may not care a whit about learning algebra just because an adult says it is important for them to do so. A number of valuable goals and outcomes have been advanced in recent years in support of teaching algebra, including the following: 1. To develop student skills in the solution of equations, finding numbers that meet specified conditions; 2.

To teach students to use symbols to help solve real problems, such as mixture problems, rate problems, and so forth; 3. To prepare students to follow derivations in other subjects, for example, in physics and engineering; and, 4. To enable students to become sufficiently at ease with algebraic formulas that they can read popular scientific literature intelligently (Wagner & Kieran 1999, p. 12).

Therefore, by making the instructional material relevant to their lives and by drawing on what they already know, though, algebra teachers at all levels of instruction can facilitate the learning process even if students do not appreciate how important the subject matter may be to them in their later lives and professional career pursuits. For example, Stacey and MacGregor report that, "Ideas essential for learning algebra have a place in the primary curriculum, but only in secondary school do students begin formal algebra, which for us is signified.

This late introduction reflects the special role of algebra as a gateway to higher mathematics. Algebra is the language of higher mathematics and is also a set of methods to solve problems encountered in professional, rather than everyday, life" (1999, p. 58). This point is also made by Wagner and Kieran who emphasize that, "All mathematics instruction and algebra instruction in particular, should be designed to promote understanding of concepts and to encourage thinking. Drill and practice should be required whenever necessary to reinforce and automatize essential skills.

but, whenever drill and practice are required, students should always have a clear understanding of why the particular skill is so important that its mastery is required" (1999, p. 12).This is not to say, of course, that algebra teachers must resort to "tricking" students to learn, but it does mean that different students will learn in different ways and there is a need to provide an individualized approach to teaching the representational aspects of algebra.

Most classroom teachers can readily testify that they are able to identify the point at which students achieve the "a-ha" moment in learning, where they make the mental connection between the curricular offering and comprehension. In this regard, Tall and Vinner (1981) advise that the mental leap described above can be conceptualized in terms of the "evoked concept image" which will vary for different students: "At different times, seemingly conflicting images may be evoked. Only when conflicting aspects are evoked simultaneously need there be any actual sense of conflict or confusion.

Children doing mathematics often use different processes according to the context, making different errors depending on the specific problem under consideration" (Tall & Vinner 1981, p. 152). Moreover, different students can achieve successful academic outcomes by using different problem-solving methods, including those preferred by the teacher. In this regard, Tall and Vinner emphasize that, "For instance adding 1/2 + 1/4 may be performed correctly but when confronted by 1/2 + 1/3 an erroneous method may be used.

Such a child need see no conflict in the different methods, he simply utilizes the method he considers appropriate on each occasion" (1981 p. 152). Once the initial mental leap regarding these representational aspects is achieved, teachers can apply a more standardized approach to the entire classroom, but helping individual learners get started is an essential requirement for success -- even if this means taking the time to tutor struggling students or arrange for peer mentors to help them in the process.

In this regard, it is educationally axiomatic that, "If students aren't learning the way I'm teaching, then I must teach the way they learn." Unfortunately, some parents lack the basic background in algebra needed to help their children in this area, making the classroom the only place where young learners can acquire this important knowledge. Therefore, it is incumbent upon classroom teachers to develop the teaching skills and repertoire of tools that can be used with different students depending on their individual needs.

Conclusions The research showed that the need for a thorough understanding of mathematics is essential in the 21st century, and learning algebra is no longer regarded as a luxury but rather a necessity in many of the fastest-growing career fields. Unfortunately, many young learners may bring a number of misconceptions and erroneous beliefs about algebra that must first be addressed and "unlearned" before real learning can take place.

For example, the results of a study by Ferrini-Mundy and Graham (1991) found that first semester students' understanding of function was poorly constructed and the majority of these young learners were unable to provide a working definition of function but they were able to illustrate the concept by using formulas: "Many of the students interviewed were not able to provide any type of general definition of function but readily gave examples of functions by writing formulas" (Ferrini-Mundy & Graham, 1991, p. 630).

The researchers stress, though, that they were not able to discern any significant evidence that these young learners regarded algebraic functions as being worthy objects of study in mathematics (Ferrini-Mundy & Graham, 1991). Based on the growing recognition of the importance of higher mathematics for young people today, there have been a number of studies in recent years that have focused on how to best communicate the concepts of limit and continuity and how to help young learners make the leap of intellect that is needed to.