Slavery in Africa Institutions and Customs

French Colonization of Senegal and West Africa from 1830-1900

Introduction

The French colonization of Senegal and other parts of West Africa from 1830 to 1900 had a significant impact on the region's history and development. One of the most controversial aspects of this period was the practice of slavery, which was widespread in Senegal and other parts of West Africa at the time. While the French authorities initially tolerated and even participated in the slave trade, there was growing pressure from anti-slavery activists and the wider international community to abolish the institution of slavery. In 1848, the French government finally abolished slavery in all its colonies, including Senegal. However, the abolition did not immediately end the practice of slavery, and its effects on the region were muted by the continued practices of pillaging, kidnapping, and slavery by the local peoples. In this context, this paper will explore in what ways French actions might have weakened the hold of masters over slaves in neighboring African societies, whether deliberately or inadvertently, during the period of French colonization from 1830 to 1900.

Background

Islam had come to West Africa prior to French colonization, and the aristocracy had become Muslim by and large.[footnoteRef:1] Exacting tributes or pillaging local communities were the main means of survival for many families and tribal communities, whether of the Waalo or the Wolof aristocracy.[footnoteRef:2] In fact, pillaging was such a problem that it prompted Jauriguiberry, Commandant of the Cercle of Dagana, to write a letter to the Governor of Senegal France regarding the arrest of two local thieves—Aliou Kan, chief of Pendaw, and his brother Amedine Kan.[footnoteRef:3] [1: Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Ohio University Press, 2004), 4.] [2: Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Ohio University Press, 2004), 4.] [3: ANS 13G-102: 31 (National Archives of Senegal, Dakar, Dossier 13G-102, Correspondence of the Chief of Post of Dagana, 1864-1865, item 31), June 17, 1864), Jauriguiberry, Commandant of the Cercle of Dagana, to the Governor of Senegal.]

France began its colonization of Senegal in the early 19th century, with the establishment of trading posts along the Senegal River. In 1854, the French annexed the kingdom of Waalo and made it part of Senegal, which became a French colony in 1895. Culturally and socially speaking, France had changed from a monarchy to a more egalitarian system of governance. Its ideals stemmed from the Enlightenment—wherein liberty, fraternity, and equality were trumpeted as the main values.

During the period of French colonization in Senegal, the French established several economic activities that facilitated the growth of commerce and trade. One of the most significant industries was agriculture. In addition to agriculture, the French also developed other economic activities such as mining and forestry, which contributed to the growth of the colonial economy. Senegal had several natural resources, including gum arabic, gold, and iron, which the French exploited for export to Europe and other regions. To facilitate trade and commerce, the French sought to establish infrastructure to connect Senegal to other parts of West Africa and beyond. For example, the Dakar-Saint-Louis railroad, which was completed in 1885, connected the Senegalese capital of Dakar to the important trading center of Saint-Louis, which facilitated the transport of goods and people across the country.[footnoteRef:4] [4: Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Ohio University Press, 2004), 162.]

The French also established several ports along the Senegal River, including Dakar, which became an important center for trade and commerce. The port of Dakar served as a hub for the export of peanuts, gum arabic, and other products, and it also facilitated the import of goods from Europe and other regions. Suffice to say, the French introduced their language, Western culture, and governance system to Senegal, which had a significant impact on the region's social and political structures. For example, the French introduced the concept of citizenship, which created a new framework for political participation and representation. This had a major effect on the bond between aristocratic families and chiefs, who were appointed by the French.[footnoteRef:5] These were all indirect ways in which the French weakened the hold of masters over slaves: it brought about changes in culture and custom that influenced the region over time. [5: Letter: Governor Valière to Minister, “Envoi de la délibération du Conseil d’Administration pourtant solution de diverses questions relatives à la situation de la Colonie,” Saint-Louis, August 14, 1870) (CAOM FM SG SEN/I/56)]

Still, the practice of slavery was prevalent in Senegal and other parts of West Africa at the time of French colonization. Slaves were used as laborers and domestic servants, and their status was determined by their ancestry and social position. Although the French abolished slavery in 1848, the practice continued in some areas until the early 20th century.

Turning Point

In terms of slavery, the French abolition of slavery in 1848 was nonetheless an important turning point.[footnoteRef:6] It marked the end of legal slavery in French colonies, including Senegal and other parts of West Africa. However, the decree did not totally end slavery. Article 1 of the decree stated, “The populations that may come to settle in our posts other than Saint-Louis will have the right to keep their slaves. None of provisions of the Emancipation Decree apply to these populations.”[footnoteRef:7] [6: Emancipation decree of April 17, 1848. Center for Overseas Archives, Aix-en-Provence, France: Ministerial Archives, Geographical Series: Senegal. Indigenous Politics of the Senegal River, 1854-1879.] [7: Emancipation decree of April 17, 1848. Center for Overseas Archives, Aix-en-Provence, France: Ministerial Archives, Geographical Series: Senegal. Indigenous Politics of the Senegal River, 1854-1879.]

The abolition of slavery in Senegal and other French colonies in 1848 was also part of a wider trend of anti-slavery activism and legislation that was taking place in Europe and North America during the 19th century. This trend was driven by a growing awareness of the inhumane treatment of slaves and the moral imperative to end the institution of slavery.

Anti-slavery activism emerged in Europe and North America in the late 18th century, with the formation of abolitionist societies and campaigns to end the transatlantic slave trade. These efforts gained momentum throughout the 19th century, as activists and politicians sought to end slavery in all its forms. By the end of the century, the Atlantic Slave Trade would be banned, but even this would be limited in terms of scope.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Ohio University Press, 2004), 163.]

Likewise in West Africa, the abolition decree did not immediately end the practice of slavery in Senegal and other parts of West Africa (as the decree itself admits). Some slaveholders resisted the law and continued to hold slaves, despite the French government's efforts to enforce the abolition. In some cases, slaveholders argued that the abolition only applied to French citizens and not to them, as local elites often held a different legal status than French citizens. The oral testimony of a person in Dagana in 1864 shows the fact of the matter—namely that the nobles or princes of the local communities still engaged in the practice of kidnapping and enslavement of other natives.[footnoteRef:9] The person, named Coumba Diop, gave in deposition in which she stated, “Last year during the month of Kori, I had gone out to gather the wild millet known as diakhar from a creek near my village. A Maure, Sagane (a tributary of the nobles [princes]) kidnapped me and brought me to the village of Bekar (Toube). He sold me to a certain Diame Boye. After the Maure departed, I told Diama Boye that I had been born a free person and that the Maure stole me. Then five or six days after he bought me, Diama had me taken to the village of Ndieben (Gandiole) where I was sold to Yacine Coumba, a [female] relative of the chief Mour Ndike Diop.”[footnoteRef:10] This deposition serves as one anecdotal piece of evidence, preserved in the official reporting of Senegal, regarding the continuation of slave practices by the people of the communities—well after the French had issued its decree. The fact is that the culture and systems of the French people were deeply at odds with the customs and practices of the locals of West Africa. The two peoples did not share the same ideals or belief systems. Therefore, it is not surprising to find in the historical record that instances of this sort continued to occur. [9: ANS 13G-102: 20 (National Archives of Senegal, Dakar, Dossier 13G-102, Correspondence of the Chief of Post of Dagana, 1864-1865, item 20), March 30, 1864. ] [10: ANS 13G-102: 20 (National Archives of Senegal, Dakar, Dossier 13G-102, Correspondence of the Chief of Post of Dagana, 1864-1865, item 20), March 30, 1864. ]

Furthermore, the abolition of slavery did not address the underlying economic and social conditions that likely contributed to the practice of slavery in the first place. Slavery had been a fundamental part of West African society for centuries before the arrival of Europeans, and its abolition did not immediately change the economic or social structures that had supported the institution. The practice of thieving, pillaging, and kidnapping endured because they were practices that were easily adopted to address relevant needs. The communities had not converted in the sense of applying themselves to a higher culture or system of being. Thus, many former slaves continued to work for their former masters after abolition, as they had few other options for employment. Moreover, the end of slavery did not necessarily mean the end of servitude or exploitation, as some former slaves continued to face discrimination and economic marginalization.

Plus, the French government did not always provide adequate support for former slaves after abolition. While some former slaves were able to secure their freedom and establish new lives for themselves, others faced significant obstacles in terms of finding employment, securing land, and accessing education and other resources—and even in just escaping slavery.[footnoteRef:11] In one report from 1868 of the Commandant of Dagana to the Governor of Senegal, the authorities described several slaves escaping (some with their masters) from a famine in a nearby locale. Some returned to their masters and some stayed in the settlement. Eventually masters came looking for them, and slaves wanted to remain free while paying tribute. Masters wanted their slaves back, however. The Commandant stated, “Pending the Governor’s final decision, they are not free since they themselves acknowledge that they are slaves and since they have paid and still offer to pay the tribute to their masters.”[footnoteRef:12] This decision shows the extent to which the French authorities were really willing to “ban” slavery in West Africa. [11: ANS (National Archive of Senegal, Dakar), Dossier 13G-103: 84, Correspondence of the Commandant of Dagana to the Governor of Senegal, 1866-1868, item 84, Martin, Commandant of Dagana, to the Governor of Senegal, Dagana, October 11, 1868.] [12: ANS (National Archive of Senegal, Dakar), Dossier 13G-103: 84, Correspondence of the Commandant of Dagana to the Governor of Senegal, 1866-1868, item 84, Martin, Commandant of Dagana, to the Governor of Senegal, Dagana, October 11, 1868.]

What It Did Affect

Nonetheless, French actions did contribute to the weakening of the hold of masters over slaves in neighboring African societies in several ways, both deliberately and inadvertently. One way was through the imposition of French law and governance structures, which provided slaves with a legal framework for challenging their status and seeking redress. For example, the French legal system recognized the right of slaves to petition for their freedom, and some slaves were able to use this legal avenue to secure their freedom.

Another way was through the expansion of commerce and the creation of new economic opportunities. As the French established trading posts and developed infrastructure, they created new jobs and markets. This led to the growth of new economic sectors and the decline of traditional systems of labor, including slavery. As a result, some slaveholders were forced to adapt to changing economic conditions and relinquish their hold over slaves. Gradually, the ways of the West helped to pave the way for new customs to begin to take root in the region, but this was a slow process. But midway through the French colonization, the people were still warlike, dealing with pillaging and conflict from intrusive tribes, as the report from the Commandant of Dagana in 1868 reveals.[footnoteRef:13] The French decree helped to pave the road for fewer conflicts by instilling a more ordered approach to society, but a fierce hierarchy and system of warfare still remained entrenched at times. [13: ANS 13G-103: 59 (National Archive of Senegal, Dakar, dossier 13G-103, Correspondence of the Commandant of Dagana to the Governor of Senegal, item 59), Martin, Commandant of Dagana, to Governor, January 14, 1868.]

Additionally, French actions inadvertently weakened the hold of masters over slaves by disrupting traditional power structures and creating new opportunities for social mobility. As the French expanded their influence and established new centers of power, they challenged the authority of traditional rulers and elites. This created new opportunities for individuals from lower social strata, including slaves, to rise to positions of power and influence.

However, the Islamic customs remained ingrained in many ways as well. For instance, as Governor Valière reported, “in Tooro, Dimar and Waalo, all the non-chiefs say that a badolo [commoner] will not suffer to be commanded by his social equal, but will accept a noble or notable. A prince must command the country. A noble must command a village. Command is the hereditary function of certain families. The right to elect or propose the nomination and destitution of a chief belongs exclusively to the notables of each country or village.”[footnoteRef:14] In other words, this sense of hierarchical proceedings was still very much there in 1870 even after two decades following the decree banning slavery. The egalitarianism that had been promoted in the West and in French culture was not celebrated in Islamic culture in Africa. The native people of Waalo and other places insisted on a hierarchical structure: they did not want egalitarianism nor did they respect it, as Governor Valière reported. A commoner would not take orders from another commoner but only from a noble—a person of higher social class and standing. That was simply how they were accustomed to living. [14: Letter: Governor Valière to Minister, “Envoi de la délibération du Conseil d’Administration pourtant solution de diverses questions relatives à la situation de la Colonie,” Saint-Louis, August 14, 1870) (CAOM FM SG SEN/I/56)]