Social construction of race

¶ … race?

Racial Formation

Racial Formation as part of everyday life experience

The Evolution of Modern Racial Awareness

Introduction to the racist reactions

Social Construction Theory

Development of the Social Construction Framework

Propositions related to the social construction of target groups

Racial Rearticulating of political issues

The Far Right

Neo-Conservatism

This report basically centers on a fundamental issue in society that the human race faces which is that of race. The judgment of a person on the basis of their skin color and their place of origin is something that has become quite a problem for some people, while others gain a competitive edge through this distinction. This report aims to discuss this issue while giving an insight into how this creates problems for the minorities and the marginalized groups. It is also discussed how the government and the policy making groups react to this racism and how the formation of policy is greatly influenced by these beliefs of people. Some of the theories have also been discussed as to what they believe the problem is and how this affects the human thoughts and reactions and how this can be eliminated and a new "color blindness" can be encouraged amongst people.

What is race?

There is a constant idea in the minds of people to consider "race" as something that is fixed, continuous and concrete. It is sometimes considered as an objective reality. On the other hand, it may be considered as something ideological and existing only in the minds of people. This topic is however quite debatable and both the sides can be weighed out to come down to a general viewpoint. It is important however to recognize that "race" a social phenomena that exists in our society to quite an extent and is not stable. It changes from time to time, and from place to place. Through these viewpoints, we can derive a general definition of what the term "race" actually means. "Race" is a concept that exists in the minds of people whereby a kind of conflict occurs between the interests of people by categorizing them according to certain characteristics associated with their bodies. This categorization also involves the concept of judging a person's biological traits and physical appearances to signify and stereotype them. Although the concept of "race" involves the biological characteristics of a human being, there are certain features used for the purpose of racial orientation which is important in the historical and social process. Apart from gender, the only other way to classify a person according to the biological characteristics is "race" (Omi and Winant, 1994).

Although the idea and concept of "race" involves the biological characteristics of a human, the selection of these particular human features for racial orientation are based on some kind of social and historical process. The question often presented now is how well humans can deal without having race as a part of life. The frequency at which this question is asked is now gradually increasing. The answer to this is not as easy as it seems. It is quite difficult to change the set beliefs and thoughts of people that surround a person's self-identity. This identity has become part of the world and the perception of people. However, to eliminate the concept of race is not easy but instead of considering it as a problem, it can slowly be minimized and erased by changing the way we think and perceive the things around us.

To counter and deal with this concept, the starting point would be to recognize that despite the contradictions and uncertainties that are brought about by the concept of race, it is a social phenomena that exists in society and instead of accepting it, a step should be taken to banish it from the society and the world as a whole. This colored framework whereby we are so harsh in judging others should be demolished and a more objective and concrete platform should be established where we can keep our minds open and the policies designed should be strong enough to support the marginalized groups as well. Race should be considered a social element existing in society just like any other social concept, rather than an issue creating irregularities within. These ideas give rise to the theoretical approach which is also known as the "racial formation" approach.

Racial Formation:

Racial Formation can be described as an old sociological process that can be traced back to history. It is the process whereby racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, as well as destroyed. To elaborate upon this theory, this can be divided into two steps. Emphasis is first laid on the historically situated projects whereby human bodies and social structures are represented and organized. In the second step, a link is made from racial formation to how hegemony evolved and affected the way society is formed and run. Adopting this approach can help better the understanding regarding a lot of controversies that exist regarding this issue such as race itself as a problem in society, the nature of racism, how race differences can be related to the other differences and inequalities that exist in society and how oppression takes place on the basis of these inequalities. The racial formation approach suggests that the perception and how race becomes part of the society reflects cultural beliefs as well as social structure. It is often to find that race is interpreted and attempted to being understood by only one of these aspects. For instance, race may be considered a social phenomenon which is structured in the society but it may not be attempted to actually find out the origins or birth of that concept in society. Often in the society, racial differences and inequalities are considered to exist due to the cultural patterns and beliefs or due to society's attitudes. These ideas and theories fail to elaborate on how this structure affects the stratification and distribution of races in the labor market and employment opportunities, as well as the extent to which they gain equal treatment in other aspects of life such as living conditions. Another approach to look at this problem is that of racial projects whereby race is linked to their particular practices and the way they are structured in society. Racial projects highlight the practices of different races and how everyday experiences are different among each group. This approach of racial projects can be examined from a broader macro perspective as well as that in other aspects of life (Murray, Charles 1994).

Racial Formation as part of everyday life experience:

At a micro level in society, our perception of race is linked to the significant structures and how our meanings of the term affect how we behave towards people belonging from different races. To observe and interpret how these racial formations take place in society, it is important to see how people react to the racial projects when they are seen around. It is a subconscious approach to notice and classify a person as belonging to a particular race and reacting accordingly to that stereotype.

While meeting a person, it is natural to notice the gender and the race of the person. Race is something that gives an insight into the person's character and a first look judgment is passed about a person judging him or her on the basis of race. This is one of the sad realities of life. Before getting to know the person, a label is attached only on the basis of the physical appearance and skin color. An encounter with a person of a racial minority and ethnic background may prove to be a source of awkwardness and discomfort for the person due to the labels attached to his/her race. (Omi and Winant, 1994)

Our ability to view and judge a person according to their race also depends on our preconceived notions about a particular concept. People are automatically perceived to act in a particular way and it is quite a surprise when they don't. There are stereotypes attached to the Asians, blacks, Afro Americans and other ethnic groups. Analysis state that by looking at these already present stereotypes, the social structures and beliefs are reinforced as well as the different treatments that these races get in terms of laws, demographics, customs and the threats that they face.

On the other hand, by the existence of these racist beliefs in our minds, our reactions to certain institutions in the society also change. The thoughts in out own mind, compel us to explain social differences in society on the basis of skin color. Certain attributes are attached to the race such as patience, conduct, intelligence, sexuality, athletic abilities, sexuality and other preferences. These preset beliefs raises questions regarding our trust in the people around us and the extent to which we are able to look beyond the visible differences. Our images of the other people in terms of romance, taste in music, talking, walking, eating, etc. are all racially coded and influenced. Hence, it is way too comprehensive to observe and control how difficult it is to be "colorblind" and treat everyone equally despite their origin and physical attributes.

To wrap up this argument, it can be said that the racial formation theory states that the society is encompassed with racial projects and discrimination. This concept of racial discrimination is purely ideological and is usually instilled in the minds of people automatically. A certain level of "common sense" is involved in each individual where that influences his or her way of comprehending, reacting and interpreting any situation. In circumstances like these, it is not possible to eliminate such a phenomenon unless it is tracked down, explicitly and implicitly in the social construct. Because race can be traced back to history, it is possible to understand how significant this phenomenon is in society and how it changes over time and changes society with it. It is also essential to know how racism actually came about in society and for that, it is important to know the historical evolution of the concept.

The Evolution of Modern Racial Awareness:

The distinction between the different races and human groups dates back to prehistory, and can be found even in the earliest documents like the Bible and Herodotus. But the origin of the concept goes back to the Europeans in America. The hostility and suspicion that existed between the Christian residing in Europe and the "others," which were Jews and Muslims, is not exactly seen as racial formation because this hostility existed mainly due to the religious grounds (Omi and Winant, 1994).

The emergence of "racism" can be dated back to the time when the European explorers reached the West and the categories and distinctions began to emerge on the basis of skin color, nationality and race. The European explorers basically handled capitalist goods. Soon they found something which would prove to be their greatest treasure for the years to come. The Europeans came across people who were different in aspects such as looks and how they behaved. These new "discoveries" challenged the existence of the Europeans and the very notion of the origin of these people. This challenge soon heated things up and it was now a matter of concern for the Europeans. The question which rose due to this discovery was whether all these people could be classified as belonging to the same family and having the same origins because they differed in numerous ways. The Europeans now started considering how it was possible to enslave and rule over these natives. This gave rise to debates surrounding issues on religion which gave the idea that Europeans were the rulers and any one from a different background would not be considered above them (Omi and Winant, 1994).

Then began the process of seizing territories and goods and enslaving the natives and making them part of the labor force who worked for these Europeans. This also began a process of African slave trade which considered the Europeans as the so called children of God and it gave them a superior hand above the people of other races and backgrounds. These concepts and incidents actually gave rise to this concept of superior and inferior colors and races and therefore, divisions were created in the community. Two classes were made following these events, that of "Europeans" and the "Others." This division among the people turned out to be one of the greatest historical racial formation events. This discrimination started to spread from the Western Hemisphere to other parts of the world.

Introduction to the racist reactions:

Back in March 1985, around 2500 people of Alabama came together to protest against one of the most dramatic movement in history. Before this, Martin Luther King Jr. had also led a similar movement, twenty years ago, whereby he led 4000 people on a march which was fifty miles long and stretched from Selma to Montgomery. These civil rights movements proved to be a turning point for the voting rights of the Black people. Twenty years before this, the president of Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Rev Joseph E. Lowery addressed the crowd saying that they had "faith" but the government of the country failed to give everyone equal rights. (Omi and Winant, 1994) Even the Reagen administration was trying to overcome this problem of racism and turn the clock for the Black people.

It was sad to see that whatever Lowery pointed out was quite true and the stance of the blacks in America was gradually deteriorating and the standard of their life was also worsening with lesser employment opportunities, poverty levels falling even more, mortality rates increasing drastically and the gap between the whites and blacks widening gradually. Despite all these problems, the people of America remained rather calm but eventually the whites got frustrated of providing for the underprivileged blacks. The blacks got suppressed more and more and the differences in the racial treatment became more and more evident in every aspect of life.

Even though a lot of emphasis has been laid on the movements to overcome this inequality in the society, no one really cares enough to find out how these racial issues actually contributed to the shaping of political movements. Even in recent years, a lot of attempts have been made in order to revitalize these concepts of the past and try to eliminate the existence of this concept from our society. Three new perspectives have sprung up in an attempt to look into the ideas and objectives of the civil rights movements in the past and to gain a better understanding how they came about and to what extent they were successful, those being the Far Right Paradigm, The New Right Paradigm and the Neo-conservatism (Omi and Winant, 1994).

Social Construction Theory:

In the beginning of the 1980s, policy theorists looked towards the policy design approach that basically addressed the factors determining the public policy design such as designing, selecting, execution and evaluation (Bobrow and Dryzek, 1987). The idea of the social construction of separate target populations was not recognized until the late 1980s (Schneider, 1990).

The social construction of the target population has been formed so as to explain a number of elements and dilemmas attached to the democratic policy that other framework do not consider in a very clear manner. Certain questions that arise in relation to the public policy are as to how different groups are treated differently after the public policy is passed, why some groups in society suffer on the basis of others, why is there a differential form of treatment for particular groups and so on. This theory and research into the social construction of policy making can be quite helpful in deriving the evidence needed to judge why these problems exist such as non-effective problem solving, absence of democracy. This theory attempts to understand the differences in the designing of policy and it also points out that different groups in the society have different relationship and terms with the government. Hence, they receive differential treatment and access to opportunities. The political groups may treat the groups on the basis of the kind of reputation, social and economic standing that they have, rather than the equal treatment they claim to provide. These categorizations greatly affect the efficiency levels of the governmental organizations and their political discourse and implementation of policies (Ingram, Helen. 1957).

Development of the Social Construction Framework:

There was a time when social construction was seen as something a person would interpret and analyze according to his or her own understanding. It was believed that there was no single definition by which "reality" could be defined and it varied from person to person. (Mannheim, Karl.1936). It was later stated that the knowledge that we gain and interpret are a result of the social relationships that exist in society. The social problems that are seen are a mere interpretation and analysis of being classified as "problematic" in society (Bacchi, 1999). The basic problem lies in actually classifying something to be problematic. The orientation with the social sciences is that they are open to a person's own analysis. There are no strict rules stating what to believe. Social construction of reality is an exercise whereby everyone's varying opinions constructs what they believe to be true. The images, stigmas, phenomena, stereotypes are all subjective analysis of the people.

The terms "target groups" and "target population" are used to describe the groups that get the advantages and the drawbacks of the different parts of the policy design. The policy designs are made up of all the elements that have any influence on the target populations. The elements are made up of aims that are to be attained and the problems that need to be resolved. And the tools that are useful for the inclusion and exclusion.

Propositions related to the social construction of target groups:

Under this proposition, the policy designs are examined. Their social construction is focused on and how the target populations are decided and how actively these target groups participate in the politics. Another very important aspect that is examined is how the social and political constructions actually create divisions among the various target groups in society and how these differences are responded to by the government in devising the public policy. There are two particular groups that are constructed, one being the politically and socially powerful group which is considered superior and the other group is comprised of those that are disadvantaged and are negatively constructed in society. These propositions make it possible to study in detail, the different policies enforced and the changes in the policies according to the classifications in the racial groups.

The first proposition states that the policy designs device different opportunities for different target groups and this actually causes differences in the way the government behaves with the people and hoe they receive differential treatment. These policies have a heavy effect on the amount of opportunities people receive and the life standards that are then maintained. Even though it is often stated that all the residents of a country are equal and no one is any different to the other, this is rarely followed after the public policy is designed. (Schneider and Ingram 1993, 1997).

The second proposition says that the amount of power and representation that each target group receives in the public policy is proportional to the level of power they possess in the politics and how influential they actually are. It also depends on whether the group maintains a positive or negative image in the society. That is basic criteria on which the target group receives the status and stance in society. The formation of the target population or grouping in society is mainly determined by the political influence and strength as well as the positive or negative stigma attached. With the political influence, it is often assessed whether the group has a united population, easily adaptable, mobile, rich and resourceful, and whether it is clear on the concerned topics. The groups that have an upper hand are the advantaged ones who get the access to all the opportunities, power, and importance in the social status. The people getting a chance to be in this group are usually family men who have a stable family, the private entrepreneurs, scientists, lawyers and personnel. These people are treated with respect, have a greater living standard and receive benefits from the government. The contender groups on the other hand are thought of as self-centered and greedy people and are often suspected and denied their rights. These are basically comprised of the labor class and ethnic minority races who are unorganized and rarely have political representation and power. Then there is a class of Dependant who is looked upon with pity and is given a share of the opportunities only because they are helpless people who can rarely fight for themselves and are considered unfortunate. The poverty struck families, handicapped, homeless and orphans usually come under this category. They do not have political representation but are considered worthy of receiving aid and help from the government.

Racial Rearticulating of political issues:

The liberal agenda that arose from the civil rights movement set out a challenge for the racial understandings and practices of that era and tried to bring about some reforms and desegregation policies to provide equal opportunities for all. A backlash to institutionalize the reforms was set out in the 1960s.

One of the important elements of this was the rearticulation of all the political issues. This was basically derived from the racial formation theory (Omi and Winant, 1986). This theory states that social meanings and perceptions are what forms the political struggle. The civil rights movement gave rise to a new motivation for people of different races to fight for democracy and equality and to help make the lives of the blacks and other marginalized groups as good as they can. Previous studies and researches have suggested the need to be color blind and judge people on their merit and abilities rather than on the basis of their skin color and biological traits. Race, when considered as a fundamental issue of our society, has been a matter of arguments and debate for many political sociologists. A study that highlights some of these issues was the report on "Democratic Defection" (Greenberg, 1985). In this study, interviews were conducted in groups of white, male workers to gain an insight to their beliefs about the voting system and their opinions on the reasons for shifting party allegiance.