Marxist and functionalist views of religion

Sociology and Religion sociological study of religion does not focus simply on what different people believe or how different people worship. In addition to these, sociologists also focus on the social effects of religion, on how religion affects our social institutions and human behavior. Examples such as the political influence of the religious right in the United States today and the historical Crusades show the powerful effect religion can have on human society.

This paper conducts a sociological study of the role religion plays in society - both from a functionalist and a conflict perspective. In addition, it examines some studies that have been conducted from both perspectives. This includes classic studies done by Emile Durkheim, as well as more modern thinkers like William Julius Wilson.

Functionalist perspective

Explanation of functionalist perspective and studies

Functionalist sociologists believe see society as akin to an organism, composed of different but interrelated systems. Everything that exists in a society is therefore seen as existing for the purposes of keeping society in good working order. Like other aspects of culture, religious organizations and beliefs also serve several important functions in holding society together.

For functionalists, religion serves both manifest and latent functions. For its manifest functions, sociologist Emile Durkheim (1912) wrote that religion serves to divide the world between the sacred and the profane. Defining a spiritual world gives humans a place to turn to, in order to explain events that would otherwise be scary or unexplainable. In more primitive times, for example, people attributed mental disease to possession by evil spirits.

Durkheim (1912) also pointed out that religion serves a strong integrative function, providing an avenue for people of diverse backgrounds to come together.

In this way, religion acts as a form of social glue, giving people a chance to affirm and reinforce its values. It is this values that form the strong ties that bind individuals together in a society.

Though Durkheim proposed this theory almost a century ago, much of it remains relevant today. After the September 11 attacks, for example, many churches reported a resurgence of attendance in their services. High-profile interfaith memorial services with leaders from Christian, Buddhist, Islamic and Jewish faiths were planned to for people to both come together in collective grief and to affirm that we are all Americans.

The media coverage of these events further enhanced the integrative effect that religion can have in society.

Similarly, individual churches also help people come together into smaller communities. Many Latin American and Filipino immigrants, for example, flock to Roman Catholic Churches where services are conducted in their own languages. An increasing number of Korean immigrants are also finding Korean Baptist and Presbyterian Churches in which to congregate (Lawson 1998). In these cases, religion acts as social glue, providing immigrants in a new land different ways to form other important social networks.

In recent years, President George Bush has also initiated several faith-based initiatives, where religious groups are taking part in social services such as education and the rehabilitation of prisoners.

To a functionalist, these faith-based initiatives showcase once more the integrative functions of religion. In his study of such organizations, William Julius Wilson (1999) found that faith-based organizations from California to Massachusetts are becoming agents of social reform. These organizations help to identify potential community leaders, who are then able to rally their flock around social and community development. These organizations also form the basis for wider, non-sectarian coalitions for social change.

This study has historical precedents as well. During the Civil Rights Movement, African-American churches played a significant role in organizing social protest. Today, this role is being mirrored in the Episcopal Church's recent debate regarding whether to allow gay pastors to lead services.

Evaluating functionalism

The Durkheim, Wilson and Lawson studies make good arguments regarding the integrative functions of religion. These include how religion provides a venue for collective action, and how religion serves to reinforce social values. Durkheim's argument, in particular, remains relevant even today.

However, functionalists also tend to gloss over the fact that religion can be divisive as well.

Various religious loyalties can contribute to an "in group" versus "out group" mentality, as was the case of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany. James Davison Hunter (1991) also conducted studies regarding the "cultural war" in the United States. According to Hunter, the country is currently being divided on emotional issues such as abortion and same sex marriage. In many cases, the fragmentation is occurring along religious lines, with Christian fundamentalists and conservative Orthodox Jews have allied against their reform-oriented counterparts.

As this example shows, religion can serve important integrative functions. But in many cases, religion has also served as a source of conflict and even warfare, a fact which weakens the functionalist case.

Conflict perspective

Explanation of conflict perspective and studies

In contrast to functionalist thinkers, conflict thinkers focus on religion's conservative nature. Karl Marx emphasized this characteristic when he wrote that religion is "the opium of the people" (Marx 1844: 43). Instead of promoting integration by a commonality of interests, Marx was arguing that religion is often used to keep oppressed people from agitating for social change. People who are poor or disadvantaged, for example, learn to believe that their reward for a life of deprivation would come in heaven. Thus, religion acts as a way for members of the ruling class to maintain their dominant position in society.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, for example, Spanish colonizers used religion as a tool of conquest. By preaching about the rewards of obedience and faith, the colonizers were able to secure the cooperation of native populations and, in many cases, to discourage dissent. Unlike functionalists who argue that sociology that religion provides a venue for social change, this example shows how religion can be used to create what Marx terms as a "false consciousness."

Instead of focusing on the injustices and conditions of their lives, members of the "ruled" class focus on the supernatural or afterworld. This further ensures that ruling class interests are upheld, and that the status quo remains intact.

In her study of religion in England, Meredith McGuire (1997) applied a Marxist perspective to this issue. She observes that even though periods of unrest swept through much of Western Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, much of England remained quiet.

McGuire attributes this to the widespread practice of Methodism. The author notes that Methodism helped to stem the development of worker dissent by transferring the shifting the attention of workers from discontent and towards religious fervor.

McGuire (1997) also argues that Christianity fulfilled the same functions during slavery times in the United States. Instead of being allowed to practice their traditional African religions, slaves were instead pushed to adapt Christian religions.

Again, because Christianity emphasizes rewards in the afterlife, McGuire posits that Christianity played a role in shoring up slavery by pacifying the oppressed population.

Other conflict theorists also emphasize the potential of religious institutions to legitimate the status quo. Randall Collins (1981), for example, writes about how religious organizations are often tools of the status quo. Instead of seeking social change, many of these organizations have strong ties with the elite or dominant groups. Many religious organizations thus have vested interests in protecting interests like wealth, power and land.

Conflict thinkers also find that religion plays a strong role in maintaining social control. This experience is clearly illustrated in examples such as the Taliban in Afghanistan, which placed very strict regulations on how women behave in that society. In Saudi Arabia, women do not have rights such as voting or driving. Similarly, the Roman Catholic Church still prohibits the ordination of women in to the priesthood. These examples illustrate how religion still has a strong influence on how members of a society are supposed to act.