Spencer, Herbert. 1860. The Social

Spencer, Herbert. 1860. The Social Organization. The Westminster Review. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

The purpose of Spencer's article is to introduce the concept that social structure is similar to a living organism. It is an attempt to explain how the individual fits into society as well as how society is a result of the individual components within it. The theory presents the development of society using a living organism as an analogy to help explain the key concept.

Spencer introduced several key concepts into the analogy. The first concept is that societies are not created, but rather they grow into their adult form, much like a living organism. Spencer believed that social evolution, like the evolution of species, was a slow process that occurred in small steps over time. He believed that societies grew from simple to complex. Thus, one could tell the age of a society by its point in development. Those that were more complex represented the older and more highly evolved societies. He felt the development was unidirectional. Like the living organism, all of the sections of society have a specialized function and that function contributes to the anatomy of the whole.

Although, it is the hope of many that Spencer's ideals do not exist in today's world of increasing equality. Traces of Spencer's attitudes can be found in familiar terms such as "developing nations" and "industrialized nations." A developing nation is usually considered to be lacking in complexity, simple and primitive. While and industrialized nation is associated with advanced technological development and a more sophisticated system of trade, commerce, and government. The term "developing nation" does not tell us anything about potential for the country to develop in the future; it only tells us where they are compared to "industrialized" nations. These two terms and their current connotations are remnants of Spencer's theories regarding the development of societies.

Summary 2:

Tylor, Edward B. 1871 [2008]. Primitive Culture. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Edward Tylor's most important contribution to the field of cultural anthropology was the ability to put the theory of degeneration of cultures to rest. One of Tylor's key purposes was to demonstrate through a lack of evidence that there are no societies that have been proven to have "degenerated" from a higher form of cultural evolution. His work supported that of Spencer and others who felt that societies developed from low to high culture.

Tylor contributed one of the most popular definitions of culture. He wrote that culture is, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (Tylor, 1871:1). This definition remains the most widely accepted definition of culture today. Tylor felt that the driving force behind evolution was the increasing progress of rational thought. Tylor introduced the concept of "survivals" as evidence that complex societies were once more primitive. Superstitions and traditions that no longer serve a purpose in society are examples of "survivals." Tylor taught us to look to them for clues to the past.

Tylor felt that superstition was evidence of more primitive cultures, even in advanced societies. Although many of Tylor's attributions of superstition and later considered to be inaccurate representation, his work still makes the modern anthropologist step back and examine a culture from a different perspective. The most important contribution of Tylor that can be applied to modern anthropology is the necessity to step and back ask the question, "why" certain customs exist. He encourages us to take clues from the presents and look backwards for their origins. Many times this method of examination will open doors and lead to conclusions that would have been elusive using any other method of examination.

Summary 3:

Mauss, Marcel. 1925. Excerpts from the Gift. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Marcel Mauss studied comparative religion. Mauss was a socialist who promoted equality, his anti-racism attitudes can be seen throughout his work. In the Gift, Mauss examines the concept of gift giving and expectations of reciprocity. He examines the emotional attachment associated with gift giving and demonstrates that the material object is not the most important element of the exchange. He examines gift giving from a personal perspective and the emotional attachment associated with the receiving and giving of material objects.

Mauss used primitive cultures to examine how the act of gift giving creates a social bond. The giving of gifts creates the need to reciprocate on the part of the receiver. Failure to reciprocate means to devalue the person. Rejecting a gift is to reject the social bond that is created by it. Mauss considered gift giving to be the basis of social cohesion and societal solidarity.

As one reflects on the many occasions where gifts are "expected" in our society, if one considers them in the light of Mauss's arguments, one has to wonder if gift giving still has the same meaning as it did in earlier days. One can look at the expectation of receiving gifts from loved one at birthday and consider the repercussions of gift giving. When one is invited to a birthday party, or a Christmas celebration, there is an unexpressed expectation that one should bring gifts. One spends much time and effort shopping for just the right gift, spending more than they can afford, without regard to future consequences, just so that they can make certain that the person who gets the gift is appropriate and will be well received.

It is an awkward situation when it is obvious that the gifts are not of equal value, or inappropriate. Although, we do not think about it often, Mauss's social rules of gift giving still apply in our own society.

Summary 4:

Radcliff-Brown. a.R. 1940. On Joking Relationships. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Radcliff-Brown explored social relationships and conflict resolution. His purpose was to explore the social boundaries of the Joke and its role in creating social bonds. Brown used primitive tribes for his studies, but intended to develop theories that were universal and could be applied to any culture.

Radcliff-Brown found that the "rules" regarding joking relationships were dominated by social rules that defined relationships. For instance, in some South African tribes, a form of ritualized banter existed between a man and his maternal mother-in-law. This joking relationship was a social expectation according to the unwritten social rules of the tribe. Radcliff-Brown considered joking to be a form of formalized language that was designed to help avoid social conflict. Joking also serves to help in the development of social bonds.

One only needs to turn on cable television to find that joking still plays a major role in relieving societal stress. Comedians often take serious social situations and try to make people laugh about them. This is a form of stress relief that is not unlike the joking between a man and his maternal mother-in-law. It is now considered common knowledge that laughter releases endorphins, which play a role in relieving stress. Laugher is often part of the prescription for relieving harmful stress in a person's life.

Shows that make people laugh, often by making fun of another person, are big business. The situation comedy often demonstrates social situations where one member can make fun of the other without negative social repercussions. Like Mauss's gift giving rules, there is an element of expected social reciprocity in joking relationships. One does not have to sit back and take it without the ability to retaliate. Joking is still an important part of modern social bonds.

Summary 5:

Morgan, Lewis H. 1877. Ethnical Periods. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

The purpose of Lewis Morgan's, Ethnical Periods was to demonstrate the crudeness of mans' early development. It was to demonstrate how man has evolved from its most primitive beginnings to become "civilized" in the strictest sense of the word. Morgan attempted to demonstrate through the construction of phases of societal development that man progressed from primitive to civilized in an orderly fashion.

Morgan used the development of his categorical classification as "evidence" of the methods used by man to achieve the ends. Morgan's classification scheme developed the idea that one could determine the relative age of a civilization by comparing its current stage a westernized ideal of civilized society. Morgan used archeological evidence to demonstrate and support the classification of various primitive societies into his classification scheme.

By modern standards, Morgan's arguments could be considered racist. They used Western society as the "standard" against which to measure other cultures. This ideal that places one culture above another in this manner is considered obsolete and we now understand that these ideals have no place in cultural anthropology. Anyone who attempted a similar classification system in today's world would be quickly labeled a racist and subject to harsh criticism. However, one can still see remnants of Morgan's ideals as globalization takes hold in developing nations. Although differences are tolerated, the "westernization" of the rest of the world is still a growing reality. One need look no further than modern business attire to see that western ideals are quickly replacing traditional modes of dress and modes of doing business. Morgan's work makes the modern anthropologist aware that "globalization" may be a soft sell for "westernization."

Summary 6:

Fried, Morton H. 1960. On the Evolution of Social Stratification and the State. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Fried explored the development of social stratification, as opposed to a non-ranked society. His primary purpose was to explore the reasons for changes in society that lead to changes in social structure. He compared simple forms of social organization to more complex ones. Fried explored the connection between social organization and access of basic needs and resources.

In a non-rank society, there are many positions of higher rank, and there are many people to fill them. In a rank society, there are fewer positions of rank, with a higher value for those in these positions. Fried contends that society moves from egalitarian to rank as access to natural resources diminishes. He proposes that where resources are scarce, society may begin to stratify. This can occur due to increases in population, but not always. As long as resources are ample, society will not need to develop stratification. Often positions of rank have a greater access to resources. Fried considers stratification to appear as soon as communal ownership or property is replaced by private ownership.

Although Fried's principals are criticized for a lack of evidence, they still provide an interesting perspective from which to view western industrialized nations. For instance, in America, a privileged few have a majority of the wealth in the country. Most of the population must work hard to provide for their basis needs. Capitalism based on competition for resources. Money means the ability to have a secure supply of food and shelter. A lack of money can mean a lack of needed resources. Therefore, competition for money is fierce, with everyone competing for greater wealth. The purpose is to gain more for the individual; it is not for increases in wealth for the rest of society. Stratified societies are highly competitive.

Summary 7:

Appadurai, Arjun. 1990. Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

The purpose of Appadurai's examination of global cultural economy explores the effects of homogenization and heterogeneity of cultures participating on a global scale. Its key function is to explore and understand the forces that are shaping our world as we speak. They are Understanding how cultures blend is an important factor in understanding the forces that are shaping our new world model.

Appadurai explores culture and these issues of cultural mixing in terms of ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes, and ideoscapes. He uses these concepts as the lens from which to view changes and cultural constructs of modern society. Appadurai feels that the freedom to move in society is unhinging the stability of the family unit, as people move into lands that are far from their families. Nations are now having to shift their policies regarding refugee populations as a result of this freedom of movement. The technoscape means the trading of specialized personnel among various states. These factors are creating homogeneity, as the internal politics of nation-states are in the global awareness.

Appadurai's work creates an excellent lens with which to view modern trends in globalization. His divisions of the various factors that influence the formation of the global economy provide an excellent ground for studying the impact of globalization on individual cultures. It is becoming increasingly difficult to retain cultural identity in the face of increasing international scrutiny. Nations are no longer completely independent in their actions. The global response can have a direct impact on decisions that were once only the business of the parties involved. Apparadurai's classification scheme will provide an excellent model for the development of theories regarding the global economy.

Summary 8:

Turner, Victor. 1967. Symbols in Ndembu Ritual. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill.

Turner's work centered on the study of symbols, rituals and their interpretation. The purpose of his work is to understand ritual process and deeper cultural significance of rituals. Turner concentrated on the meanings of symbols and the setting of the ritual as instrumental in understanding the deeper cultural symbolism of the act. The key contribution of Turner's work is the development of methods for the interpretation of rituals outside of one's own cultural norms.

During his fieldwork with the Ndembu, Turner discovered two major principles. Matrilineal descent is the key organizational principal in Ndembu culture. Villages in this culture are not closely linked and there is a high degree of mobility between villages. Intervillage conflict is common. Political unity is lacking among villagers. Turner used symbols and rituals to study the differences in cultures, using ritual as the medium.

Turner's work is relevant in the study of today's society and the ritual that persist. His work demonstrates that value of studying ritual in understanding the culture itself. One could use rituals that exist in American and apply the same analysis that Turner used to gain a deeper understanding of the society. Let us take Thanksgiving, for example. Whether one realizes it or not, there are many symbols within the Thanksgiving meal that has cultural significance. Many of these symbols can be found in Native American traditions. However, the ritual of Thanksgiving is the symbolic blending of ritual elements. Exploring how these symbols have changed over the years gives us important clues into societal changes and values as well. Turners' classification scheme could be applied to many postmodern symbols and rituals, providing a valuable view of postmodern society and the contextual meanings behind it.

Book Review 1:

Eriksen, T. & Niesen, F. 2001. A History of Anthropology. London, UK: Pluto Press.

History of Anthropology, by Thomas Eriksen and Finn Nielsen explores the development of anthropological theory. It begins with an overview of Morgan and his theories of anthropological evolutionism and goes through the Weber. Much of the work is a general overview of the key concepts within the theories. The work serves as a summary of the major theories and works within the history of anthropology.

One of the key strengths of the book is that it provides a balanced perspective on the theories. It provides contextual clues into roots of the theory by providing a brief account of the theorist's life. This gives the reader an opportunity to get into the mind of the theorist and the influences that led to the development of their theory. This allows the reader to evaluate the theory within the proper historical context and develop deeper understanding of the outside influences that helped to shape anthropological thought.

Another key strength of the work is that it provides both sides of controversies surrounding the theories. For instance, it addresses the issues surrounding the debates of alliance and descent models of kinship. It also addresses the problem surrounding neo-Marxism and cultural ecology. It presents a balanced and unbiased perspective on these, and other important issues, in the history of anthropology.