Training and Development Components to

Training and Development Components to organizational structure In their Effective training, systems, strategies and practices, Blanchard and Thacker (2010) identify three major components of the organizational structure. Each of them is crucial to the success of the economic entity, and they refer to the following: The organizational design The decision autonomy, and last The division of labor. The organizational design represents the manner in which the economic agent strives to integrate all of the organizational resources in a manner in which they function together to attain the overall organizational purpose.

The resources to be integrated include primarily technologies, information and people and the scope of the organizational design is that of insuring proper interactions between them so that the organizational goals are attained (Autry, 1996). The decision autonomy revolves around the granting of freedom in the process of decision making. This decision autonomy is mostly important in the management of the human resource as it in fact represents a motivator for the economic agents.

Change processes are better implemented within the organizational setting when people are involved in the change and the ability to make decisions serves this purpose; it motivates the employees and it increases the company's chances of attaining its objectives. The division of labor refers to the organization of the company tasks and the labor force in a manner in which the people handle the tasks for which they are best trained.

The proper division of labor within the economic agent is the guarantee of operational efficiency, in the meaning that it ensures that each task is handled by the person most skilled to do so. References: Autry, R.H., 1996, What is organizational design? Inovus, http://www.inovus.com/organiza.htm last accessed on October 5, 2011 Blanchart, N.P., Thacker, J.W., 2009, Effective training: systems, strategies and practices, 4th edition, Prentice Hall 2.

The model of training processes The model of training process was initially developed to improve the skills and capabilities of the organizational employees. Gradually however, it became more than a simple tool to manage the employees -- it became a complex problem solving tool. The model of training processes is an integrated effort to develop not only the employees, but the company itself. Trained employees are not only better skilled and able to perform their tasks, but they are also more proactive, more involved and more innovative.

They as such support the company in attaining its objectives. In such an understanding then, the model of training is a crucial part of business growth and change (Clavelle, 2008). The training model is implemented through five gradual stages, as follows: the needs analysis phase, the design phase, the development phase, the implementation phase and the evaluation phase.

At each stage, specific considerations are made: At the first stage, the organization and the employees are observed in order to identify training needs At the second stage, emphasis is placed on the design of a program which would serve the needs previously identified At the third stage, the design created is developed in a realistic manner and actual materials are developed, such as charts, videos and other materials to be used in the training process At the fourth stage, the training process is actually implemented At the final stage, the results of training processes are evaluated to ensure that the training processes lead to the attainment of the objectives for which they were created.

References: Autry, R.H., 1996, What is organizational design? Inovus, http://www.inovus.com/organiza.htm last accessed on October 5, 2011 Clavelle, J., 2008, Five steps to any raining process, Article Base, http://jarrodclavelle.articlesbase.com/training-articles/five-steps-to-any-training-process-389781.html last accessed on October 5, 2011 3. Social learning theory The social learning theory was initially formulated by Albert Bandura and it centers on the idea that people learn and develop by observing those around them, and by learning from them.

The theory is based on the belief that people observe those like them in terms of how they behave is specific situations, and then, later on, they implement the same behavior they witnessed. In some instances, the people will implement a behavioral model based on the observation of previous situations, yet tailored to their specifics and personal features (Learning Theories, 2008). The underlying principle at the basis of social learning theory is that people learn by observing the behaviors of others, and then observing the consequences of those behaviors.

Then, a second principle is represented by the statement that people can learn without incurring change in their lives; also, the lessons learnt through observations might or might not materialize in an actual change at the level of the individual. Finally, the third principle is that of the important role played by cognition in the learning process.

Throughout the past recent years, the role of cognition in learning has increased dramatically and it is now asserted that people learn through awareness and expectations of future enforcements (The University of Texas at Austin). In order for the social learning theory to actually manifest and for the people to learn and develop through observations, four criteria have to be met.

First of all, people have to pay attention; then, they have to remember what they observed; third, they have to reproduce the observed behaviors and fourth, they have to be motivated to reproduce the behavior observed (Learning Theories, 2008). References: 2008, Social learning theory, Learning Theories, http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html last accessed on October 5, 2011 Social learning theory, The University of Texas at Austin, http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~Lynda_abbot/Social.html last accessed on October 5, 2011 4.

Definitions of learning The learning process is as old as humanity itself, and even older. It is present in all life forms and it is complex and intricate. And in order to ensure that the researchers provide an extended analysis and understanding of the concept, they assess it from numerous angles. Two of the more representative angles in analyzing learning are the behavioral stance and the cognitive stance.

From the cognitive standpoint, learning is viewed as a process through which people learn and develop by placing great emphasis on the though processes. The underlying principle of the cognitive approach is that people are logical and rational beings, who will make the choices which best suit them. In order to make those choices, they will undergo internal thinking processes, through which they learn, evolve and become able to make the most adequate decisions (Fritscher, 2011).

From the behavioral standpoint, learning is understood as a process of gaining knowledge from the interactions with the environment. According to this definition of learning, the individual witnesses and experiences with various instances, which are then transformed into lessons. This lesson which is learned leads to a change in the behavior of the individual, or at least to the possibility of change in behavior occurring in the future. At the training level, the implications include the different approaches taken by trainers.

In the context of the cognitive learning, trainers will focus on the acquisition of knowledge, the role of internal processes, thinking and memory. In the case of the behavioral stance however, trainers will focus on experiences, change, stimuli and efforts to modify the behavior (Sykronix). References: Fritscher, L.., 2011, Cognitive theory, About, http://phobias.about.com/od/glossary/g/cognitivethedef.htm last accessed on October 5, 2011 Behavioral learning, Sykronix, http://www.sykronix.com/tsoc/courses/cb/cb_beh.htm last accessed on October 5, 2011 5.

Approaches to the training needs analysis Training is, without a doubt, a key success factor in the organization's path to attaining its overall objectives. And the first and foremost important step of the training process is represented by the identification of the training needs of an economic agent, through a training needs analysis (TNA). The adequate TNA ensures that the right people would be offered the right training programs and that the objectives will as such be accomplished.

Economic agents are presented with two alternative approaches to the training needs analysis -- the proactive approach and the reactive approach (Blanchart and Thacker, 2009). The reactive approach is based on the analysis of the staff members and their skills and capabilities. What is generically looked for is the ability of the employees to perform the tasks assigned to them. If the employees possess the required characteristics to complete their job responsibilities, then there is no need for training programs.

On the other hand however, if the employees are not sufficiently skilled or knowledgeable to complete their professional duties, then there is a need for training. If the job responsibilities cannot be completed for reasons such as under-developed technologies or commodity shortages, these do not raise training needs, but other types of organizational needs. Unlike the reactive approach, the proactive approach to TNA is more hands-on and looks at the future tasks which would have to be completed within the organizational climate.

It then identifies the skills, knowledge and abilities required from the individuals who would be completing those tasks. If people with those KSA (knowledge, skills and abilities) do not already exist within the firm, there is a need for training (Phillips and Phillips, 2008). References: Blanchart, N.P., Thacker, J.W., 2009, Effective training: systems, strategies and practices, 4th edition, Prentice Hall Phillips, P.P., Phillips, J.J., 2008, ROI fundamentals: why and when to measure ROI, John Wiley and Sons 6.

Reliability and validity The concepts of reliability and validity are often used as synonymous, yet there are some notable differences between the two terms. At a general level, reliability is understood as the ability of a person, system, group or another construction to function at the adequate parameters and to serve the purposes for which it was created. The concept of validity refers to the ability of a result, a statement, a finding or another such system to be realistic, well-founded, sound and trustworthy.

Within the statistical, research and science areas, the concepts of reliability and validity gain new relevance as it is crucial for the studies to be both reliable as well as valid. In other words, they have to be self-sustained and to generate sound and trustworthy results. The constant characteristic of reliability is that of repeatability. In other words, a phenomenon is reliable if it is able to repeat. For instance, a measurement mechanism is reliable if it conducts correct measurements in various circumstances.

If the measurement system cannot be reused, then it is not reliable. This virtually reveals that reliability is a construction of the quantitative methods. Validity on the other hand represents the ability of the phenomenon to serve the needs for which it was initially intended. Emphasis is, for instance, placed on whether the answers offered to a questionnaire are truthful and able to test the research hypothesis. The validity of the project belongs more to the sphere of the qualitative methods (Newman and Benz, 1998).

Ultimately, in order for a research project to be accepted, it has to be both reliable as well as valid (Trochim, 2006). References: Newman, I., Benz, C.R., 1998, Qualitative-quantitative research methodology: exploring the interactive continuum, SIU Press Trochim, W.M.K., 2006, Reliability and validity, Social Research Methods, http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/relandval.php last accessed on October 7, 2011 7. Personal learning style My preferred learning style is the behavioral one, through which I engage in direct situations and learn from them.

It is always more useful for me to experience a situation first hand and to learn the lessons directly. This way I get to understand the dimensions of the problem better then when someone else would be explaining them to me. Cognitive learning is also useful and even necessary in some cases. To me, cognitive learning is useful in setting up some basis to a problem. It is like reviewing the theory.

But it is insufficient on its own and, for a true lesson to be possessed, the cognitive learning stance has to be combined with the behavioral learning stance, in which I come to actually experience the learning process and the dimensions of the presented problem. In other words, the non-preferred learning style is useful and some lessons can even be learnt with its use. However it is only efficient when used in combination with the preferred learning style.

If cognitive style is used alone, the lessons are remembered only for a short period of time. When learning is possible through experiences as dictates the behavioral theory, the lessons are remembered for a longer period in time. For myself then, the behavioral style is the one which helps me learn lessons in both personal as well as professional lives. Additionally, it is the one which helps me evolve as an individual; it helps me understand actions, reactions and consequences.

And in this, the cognitive stance is a more salient one, supporting the learning process in an implied manner. 8. Sit-ins A sit-in is a peaceful form of protest in which the people militating for specific demands occupy the place in which they militate. If a sit-in is conducted at work, then the employees would not leave the place of employment until their demands are resolved, or at least until negotiations bring some resolutions (Blanchart and Thacker, 2009).

A sit-down is a particular case of a sit-in, in which the people sit down on the space in which they protest, and also do not leave it until they feel that their demands are being addressed. Sit-ins can be both successes, as well as failures, and the triumph of a sit-in depends on the combination of as many needs as possible.

In other words, there are some conditions which have to be met in order for a sit-in to be effective, and the lines below reveal some of the more notable of these conditions: The sit-in has to be a peaceful manifestation so that the people and institutions targeted do not feel ambushed, but understand that they deal with rational and logical persons, ready to talk through the problems (Miller, 2004).

Also, if the sit-in becomes aggressive and violent, it could be ended by the police and then the demands would not be met. Then, the sit-in has to be well organized. On a first note, this means that the sit-in has to be legally recognized and approved by the authorities. Then, the demands have to be clear and reasonable; the protesters must have an agenda for the demands, as well as an agenda for negotiations, including highly skilled and capable representatives.

The sit-in has to attract as many people as possible, as in these cases, power lies in the numbers and more people are more likely to draw more attention. It is as such necessary to promote the sit-in. References: Blanchart, N.P., Thacker, J.W., 2009, Effective training: systems, strategies and practices, 4th edition, Prentice Hall Miller, J., 2004, Sit-ins and freedom rides: the power of non-violent resistance, The Rosen Publishing Group 9.

IM training program considerations The IM training programs as often required, yet in order for them to be successful, they must also be selected and implemented in a manner in which they address the needs for which they are selected, as well as support the group or the individual in attaining their own objectives.

With this realization in mind, the selection of the IM training program is recommended to consider the following aspects: The actual need for the training program (Blanchart and Thacker, 2009) The offer for the IM training services, referring specifically to the analysis of the providers of such services. At this level, it is necessary to select all potential purveyors and analyze them in terms of skills, capabilities, expertise, previous results and other relevant criteria The comparative selection and analysis of the IM training programs providers.

At this stage, it is specifically recommended to assess the identified providers against the needs of the group / individual as, well as assess the selected trainers against each other. The ability of the selected trainers to not only provide IM training programs, but also their ability to provide specific IM training programs, as required by the group / individual.

In other words, at this stage it is necessary to ensure that the trainer is able to identify the specific needs of the group served and to tailor their training programs onto the particularities of the served group / individual (Barnow, 2000). Finally, it is important to request references and to verify the validity of the offers made by the training service providers.

References: Blanchart, N.P., Thacker, J.W., 2009, Effective training: systems, strategies and practices, 4th edition, Prentice Hall Barnow, B.S., 2000, Improving the odds: increasing the effectiveness of publicly funded trading, The Urban Institute 10. Role play Role play mechanisms are generally used in problem solving situations and they rely on the ideas of making people understand a different situation, as if they were experiencing that situation by themselves. "Role play as a term describes a range of activities characterized by involving participants in 'as-if' or 'simulated' actions and circumstances.

[…] In brief, role play or simulation techniques are a way of deliberately constructing an approximation of aspects of a 'real life' episode or exercise, but under 'controlled' conditions where much of the episode is initiated and/or defined by the experimenter or therapist" (Yardley-Matwiejczuk, 1997).

A classification of the role play mechanisms is difficult to attain and the literary sources forward different opinions, nonetheless, the more common types of role play are the individual role playing exercises, the interactive role playing exercises, the skill-aimed role play exercises, the attitude-based role play exercises and the role plays to exercise self-talk. The individual role play exercises are completed when the individual reflects on a situation by himself; the interactive role playing exercises occur when teams are involved and the common technique is that of brainstorming (Carleton University).

Then, the skills-aimed role play is based on the acquisition of new skills and techniques, whereas the attitude-based role play is based on the understanding of the situation, the generation of new feelings and attitudes (Van Ments, 1999). Finally, the role play to exercise self-talking is based on the analysis of a situation which can be controlled by the individual; specifically, the individual will pause the experiment and out loud express what he feels and believes regarding the experiment (Baim and Brookes, 2002).

References: Baim, C., Brookes, S., 2002, The Geese Theatre handbook: drama with offenders and people at risk, Waterside Press Yardley-Matwiejczuk, K.M., 1997, Role play: theory and practice, SAGE Van Ments, M., 1999, The effective use of role play, 2nd edition, Kogan Page Publishers Types of role playing exercises, Carleton University, http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/roleplaying/whatis.html last accessed on October 7, 2011 11.

Transfer of training The concept of training transfer is based on the idea that it is not only the student that learns from the teacher, but also that the teacher learns from the student. Learning is an ongoing process, lasting for as long as the individual lives. In such an understanding then, the transfer of training occurs when the trainer learns new lessons throughout the offering of training sessions, and then takes these new lessons and integrates them within their own professional stance, behavior and attitudes (Garavaglia, 2000).

The transfer of training is possible due to the very nature of humans and the features of the learning process. Nevertheless, the process is impacted by numerous factors, some of the more notable ones being revealed below: The personality traits of the trainee. The trainer is most likely to retain more from the training experience if he/she encounters positive experiences with the trainees.

If the trainees are motivated, affective and committed to their professions, the experience of the trainer would be a positive one and the transfer would be attained. The motivation to learn at the level of both trainee, as well as trainer. If the trainer keeps an open mind, then transfer would be achieved; if on the other hand, the trainer has the attitude that he/she is already fully developed, then new knowledge through transfer would not be attained.

The previous experiences of the trainer The design and implementation of the training program, as well as the work conditions and climates in the environment in which the training sessions are completed The experiences of the trainers in the work place, after the training program has been completed and results begin to show (Clardy, 2006).

References: Clardy, A.., 2006, Transfer of training: literature review (working paper), Towson University, http://grad.towson.edu/program/...hrdg.../Transfer%20of%20Training.DO...Similar last accessed on October 7, 2011 Garavaaglia, P., 2000, Transfer of training, American Society for Training and Development 12. Maintaining interest in training Blanchart and Thacker argue that one key success factor in the triumph of the training programs is represented by the interest in training.

It is as such essential to identify the training needs, to implement the programs and to evaluate the outcomes of the programs, but all of these are invalid if the trainees do not reveal high levels of interest in training. The specialized literature presents the readers with several techniques on how to maintain the interest in training.

At the level of the employer -- who is mostly interested in capitalizing from the investment in the training programs -- the technique is that of informing the trainees of the importance of the training program. By recognizing the positive impact the new skills and knowledge would have upon their job and professional future, the trainees are more likely to preserve high levels of interest in the training programs. But aside from the employer, the training interest must also be raised and preserved by the trainer.

One special technique to attain this is represented by the design and implementation of interactive training sessions, in which the trainees participate more actively and are intellectually stimulated. The body language of the trainer has to be positive; he should maintain eye contact, compliment the trainers, nod, smile and address them by their names (United Nations Environment Programme). Last, it is essential that the trainer be well skilled and possessed vast knowledge in his field of expertise, but also in other related fields.

The trainees would reveal higher levels of interest in the training sessions if they feel that the trainer is a knowledgeable person from whom they can learn useful lessons. If, on the other hand, the trainer possesses insufficient knowledge, the trainees would more easily lose their interest.

References: Blanchart, N.P., Thacker, J.W., 2009, Effective training: systems, strategies and practices, 4th edition, Prentice Hall How to maintain participants' interest and raise the level of knowledge absorption during training, United Nations Environment Program, http://www.unep.org/ieacp/iea/training/guide/default.aspx?id=1204 last accessed on October 7, 2011 13. Training effectiveness The scope of any economic agent in the implementation of training programs is that of improving the skills and knowledge of the employees.

The desire is that of developing the workplace to a point at which they perform at superior standards, create operational efficiencies and better support the company in attaining its objectives. Training programs are however expensive and they consume organizational resources, including time in which the employees learn, rather than complete actual work-related tasks. In such a context then, economic agents have to identify whether the training program is worthwhile the investment, and whether they would be able to capitalize on it as expected.

Managerial team members commonly use two types of analyses to identify the worth of a training program. The first of these means is the cost-benefit analysis and the second is represented by the cost effectiveness valuation. The cost-benefit analysis is widespread throughout the business community due to its simplicity and relevance. According to this, the managerial team members will assess the totality of costs incurred in the delivery of the training programs and total them. In parallel, they will also identify and total the benefits generated by the program.

In the end, they compare the costs against the benefits and conclude whether the training program had been worthwhile (Nas, 1996). In the case of cost effectiveness, the mechanism is that of comparing the features of implementing the training program, against the costs of not implementing.