¶ … Training Needs Analysis Practices for Managers: A Study of Saudi Arabia Private Firms
Training needs analysis (TNA) is defined by Mabey and Salman (1995:158) as a "process of collecting data which allows an organization to identify and compare its actual level with its desired level of performance." The authors also indicate that this performance could be interpreted as meaning the competencies and attitude necessary for the staff to do the job effectively. Moreover, Armstrong (1996:536) states that "training needs assessment is partly concerned with finding the gap between what is happening and what should happen.. This is what has to be filled by training ." Figure (1.1) depicts this gap.
Figure
The training Gap
WHAT SHOULD BE
TRAINING GAP
WHAT IS
CORPORATE OR FUNCTIONAL ATANDARDS
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL REQUIRED
TARGETS OR STANDARDS OF
PERFORMANCE
CORPORATE FOR FUNCTIONAL RESULTS
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL POSSESSED
ACTUAL PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUALS
Source: Armstrong (1996)
Gibson (1999) asserts that there is a clear need for organizations to carry out a comprehensive training needs analysis before finalizing their training plans; yet despite global concurrence among academicians and HR practitioners, this exercise is not being religiously conducted. The current study intends to carry out a training needs analysis in selected private sector organizations in Saudi Arabia.
Training needs analysis is a crucial facet of the training cycle because it is upon which the effectiveness of all the other phases rest. These phases include training design, deployment, and evaluation. Moreover, it is also difficult to carry out because the parties from whom data are gathered may have varying perspectives on the exercise. There are other circumstances that aggravate the conduct of training needs analysis, such as the situation in which an external consultant merely receives input on the training needs analysis and has not been involved in the process. Moreover, there is some sensitivity involved in training needs analysis. Reid and Barrington (1999) point out that there may be some sensitivity involved in gathering, gauging, and analysing the training needs of an organisation. This is specially true if the process involves determining weak areas that need to be improved. These are but some of the issues that need to be watched out for in the conduct of the training needs analysis in the selected companies.
The conventional models of training needs analysis takes into consideration only the requirements of the job and the extent to which the incumbent meets these requisites. However, it is clear from the view of many HR authors and practitioners that this view is wanting. To be able to make the human resources function truly strategic, there is a need to scan the environment and integrate the strategies of the enterprise into HR strategy. Only in doing so can the HR function truly have value.
The methodology which the current research adopts is based on the theoretical framework of Sleezer (1993), which upholds a holistic approach to training needs analysis. The framework requires analyses at the organisational, task, and person levels.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Currently lack of research and inadequate benchmarks exist for the training needs of companies belonging to the private sector of Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, in the context of Saudi Arabia, there is dearth of literature which focuses on workforce development. The current research aims to provide an adequate analysis of the training needs of companies belonging to the private sector of Saudi Arabia. In providing sound methodology and best practices in undertaking such analysis, the research may serve as a benchmark for similar companies who intend to develop their workforce systematically. Furthermore, in being able to contribute to the development of manpower in the private sector, there will eventually be contribution to the economic sector of Saudi Arabia overall. Moreover, it may also provide a template for systematically assessing the training needs within this industry.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The current research aims to determine how private companies in Saudi Arabia carry out their training needs analysis. This will be done by adopting a case study approach and using a survey, interviews and questionnaire, to collect data. Subsequently, regression and coding techniques will be used as a data analysis tool to infer the results.
1.4 Objectives
In particular, the researcher aims to address the following objectives:
1) To determine the objectives in conducting training needs analysis in Saudi Arabian private sector firms;
2) To ascertain how these firms determine the skills of those in managerial positions match those of job requirements;
3) To determine the actions undertaken by human resource managers in the event that the incumbent managers do not possess the skills required of them by their job descriptions.
4) In doing this explore any barriers the firm encounter in achieving the above 3 objective.
1.5 Research Questions and Methodology Overview
The following are the research questions which the researcher intends to answer in the current research:
1) What are the objectives in conducting training needs analysis in Saudi Arabian private sector firms?
2) How do these firms determine the skills of those in managerial positions match those of job requirements?
3) What are the actions undertaken by human resource managers in the event that the incumbent managers do not possess the skills required of them by their job descriptions?
4) What barriers do firms encounter in achieving the above 3 objectives?
The researcher adopted a case study approach and investigated the TNA phenomenon in 33 Saudi Arabian firms. In order to answer the first three research questions, an in depth semi-structured interview was carried out. However, for the forth research question the researcher developed a close-ended questionnaire on a Likert Scale.
1.6 Significance of the Study
To justify the research on TNA, a few areas are looked at namely current TNA research, importance of TNA, neglect of the specific research problem by previous researchers, and usefulness of potential application of research's finding.
Much of the current TNA research is empirically driven and shows a serious lack of theory development. This means that current TNA research is lacking theoretical frameworks and research designs that would allow a deep understanding of this area. Hence, this study builds on the existing research by a conceptual framework to examine how the effectiveness and use of TNA.
In recent years, TNA becomes an increasingly visible element in organizational management and performance. Many companies have spent millions of dollars on TNA. This trend has been accompanied by growing concern about the way that TNA is handled by large, diversified companies. This shows that corporate TNA is important which justifies research on TNA. Although, there are many researches done on TNA especially sport TNA, there is still neglect of the specific research problem by previous researchers.
The areas that previous researchers show neglect of the specific research problem are that they did not measure TNA in relation to barriers. Most of them looked into effectiveness of TNA, employee behavior and not in the context Saudi Arabia. Most researchers did not use a comprehensive theoretical framework to look into TNA in Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, little knowledge exists to help evaluate the effectiveness of TNA as increasing companies are spending more money into it.
The usefulness of the potential applications of the research's findings is that TNA will lead to higher productivity and performance. Furthermore, top management will be able to identify what kind of program is useful and what actually in the program that appeal to them. In addition, the result also will let HR managers know how to plan their program. Finally, the research finding will lead to HR managers knowing how to effective influence workforce to get involved in individual and group development.
1.7 Outline of the thesis
The next chapter contains pertinent information about the human resource management, then progresses into a discussion of strategic human resource management. This is where training needs analysis is considered in the context of being a strategic human resource management tool. The phases, importance, and issues about training are presented towards the latter part of this section. The methodology chapter presents the research approach, procedure, sampling, and method of data analysis employed in the research. The results section discusses the statistical results gathered from the survey questionnaire. These are juxtaposed with the qualitative results of the interviews and running records; and compared and contrasted against the findings of previous literature. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are put forth for the private sector companies in the last chapter.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
Every study has its own limitations. The limitations of this study are as follows: The investigation will be conducted only in the private sectors in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the findings will apply only to medium and large size private sector organisations. Finally, only organisations registered at Ministry of Industry will constitute the population of this study.
Summary of chapter 1:
This chapter laid the foundation for the thesis. It introduced the research problem and research questions and purpose of the study. Then the research was justified, and the limitations were given. On these foundations, the report can proceed with detailed description of the research, which is covered in chapter two.
The key achievement of this chapter is that it introduces the training needs analysis in Saudi Arabia and explain why the need to measure effectiveness of TNA. Then it indicates the research gap and the purpose of the research. In addition, the chapter also looks into the overview of the research questions and issues. Finally, the chapter looks into the justification of the research and the overview of the methodology. Next, the review of the research is being looked at.
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature
2.1 Introduction
The review of related literature begins with a discussion of human resource management and its model. The discussion then progresses to the topic of strategic human resource management which provides a springboard for a presentation of training as a strategic human resource tool. The review of related literature then concludes with empirical studies related to training needs analysis.
2.2 Human Resource Management
The concepts of human resource management (HRM) started in the mid-1980 and have engaged those in the academic field and those who actually apply its ideals. Academics repeatedly question the rationality and ethics involved in the application of HRM concepts. On the other hand, those who practice it believe that it is the correct approach in the administration of employees (Armstrong, 2004). Even though the academic and practitioner fields do not agree on certain factors about HRM, it is however concurred that the organisation can tap on its workforce and use it as a competitive advantage over its competitors. Unlike technologies and machineries, the workforce cannot be duplicated as easily (Akhtar & Mak, 2003). Thus, the organisation that invests in searching, developing and maintaining its workforce is assured of a distinct set of employees that are hard to imitate as a factor contributing to competitive advantage. This will give the organisation a head start in the industry.
According to Armstrong (2004, p.6) HRM can be defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organisation's employees who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. Armstrong continued that HRM developed into strategic human resource management (SHRM) as the organisation try to accentuate the tactical element of HRM. Billsberry, Salaman & Storey (2005, p. 4) describe SHRM as a unique approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using an array of cultural, structural and personal techniques. These techniques may include the following: human resource planning, job design, job analysis, employee selection and staffing, training and development, performance appraisal, compensation and benefits, grievance and complaint procedures, employee involvement and participation plans, information sharing programs and attitude surveys. Other companies also added: increasing recruiting efforts, polishing promotion schemes like seniority vs. merits and increasing average training hours per employee per year (Akhtar & Mak 2003). Through the use the aforementioned techniques organisation can help its employees develop job-related abilities and know-how which could greatly boost their effectiveness.
2.2.1 Models of HRM
It is crucial that a discussion of the models of HRM be made because training needs analysis of the manufacturing companies will be assessed and analyzed, not as an exclusive system, but within the context of other HR systems. This is in accordance with the idea that training needs analysis must be assessed in a holistic context. Therefore, looking at the models and components of HRM would allow such holistic analysis.
2.2.1.1 Hard Model
There are two known models for HRM; these are the hard and soft models. Kaye (1999, p.580) define the hard model of HRM as that which focuses on the quantitative, calculative and strategic aspects of managing the workforce in as rational a way as any other economic resource. This model adopts the idea that the workforce is another expense that needs to be lessened and managed. Organizations following this model tend to view the workforce as a cost and not as a resource; thus most of their strategic decisions are motivated by the end result. For instance, to be able to control personnel numbers, organization using this model will turn into downsizing since it is through this that the desired outcome is achieved most quickly. However, this decision fails to consider the human and long-term repercussion of the choice (Kaye, 1999). Most of the time, in this model the term employee is often used instead of people which mirror the kind of relationship the management has with its workforce. Relationships are commonly based on outsourcing, subcontracting and franchising (Druker et al., 1996). It has been said that it is somewhat related to scientific management since it focuses on the resource characteristic of HRM where the workforce are regarded as inert entities not capable of creativity. Therefore, they are not appreciated as a whole but are measured individually on whether they have the right skills and quality that the organization needs (Gill, 1999). To be able to attain competitive advantage in this model, the organization uses a business focus thinking that stress on acquiring added value from the workforce. It puts importance to the interest of management, implementing a tactical method that incorporates business strategies, getting added value from the workforce through human resource development and performance management, creating a robust company culture that is articulated in the mission and vision statements and is strengthened by constant communication, training and performance management (Armstrong, 2004).
2.2.1.2 Soft Model
On the other hand, the soft model is based on the human relations school of thought that centers on communication, motivation and leadership. The workforce in this model are viewed as proactive individuals that are competent and worthy of confidence and partnership (Kaye, 1999). With this model, the employees are considered to be the most valuable resource and will serve as the key in achieving the organisation's goals and objective. By the means of ingenuity, commitment and skills, the workforce adds value into the business. Under this model, people management involves hiring of only the finest people, training and development of employees are suitable and first rate, compensation schemes exhibit the importance of the employee, and obtaining the loyalty of the employee (Druker et al., 1996). It believes in mutuality where the management and the workforce share the same interests and concerns. Moreover, in this model, it is presumed that all the members of the organisation, management and workforce, are acting together as a team creating a well-balanced business (Armstrong 2004).
Based from the explanations above, the hard and soft models seem to have apparent differences. In practice, however, the two models are used hand in hand by organisations. Since times have changed and employees nowadays cannot tolerate inferior treatment, absolute use of the hard model can get the company into trouble. Thus, it needs to be balanced by the soft model to be able to appease the needs of the employees as humans. In the words of Kaye (1999, p. 851) strategic HRM requires a balance of emphasis. It needs to be in line with the organisation's strategy but at the same time must create policies that could lead to employee loyalty.
2.3 Strategic Human Resource Management
Following a discussion of HRM and its models, the review of related literature proceeds with a discussion of strategic human resource management or SHRM. The strategic approach to HRM can be characterized by the following traits: consolidation of internal workforce strategy with the general business strategy, use of line management style in HR execution and policy creation, relationship with the workforce is individualize instead of a traditional communal one, and putting focus on dedication to the organisation and encouraging manager ingenuity. In addition, SHRM plans, designs and administers HR systems rooted on policies and strategies that are substantiated by a philosophy, and the workforce is viewed as a strategic tool that can be a source for competitive advantage (Baker, 1999).
It can be said that SHRM is a more specific method in application of HRM distinguished by a deeper examination of processes and more extensive coverage (Martin-Alcazar, Romero-Fernandez & Sanchez-Gardey, 2008). It is a framework that the firm uses to be able to reach its goals with the use of designed human resource distribution and endeavors. As mentioned, it can be considered as a strategic way in managing the workforce that is in line with the goals of the organisation. A part of its endeavors are continuing problems related to the workforce. The results of its activities are choices that the organisation takes in managing its people and through its activities parts of the organisation can be identified where particular HR strategies are needed (Martin-Alcazar et al., 2008).
SHRM is concerned with organisation, philosophy, culture, excellence, loyalty, complementing the human resource with the expected needs of the organization, accomplishment, proficiency, knowledge management, workforce development, and creation of positive employee relations. It aims to produce strategic capacity through the assurance that the company possessed competent, loyal and inspired personnel that it will require to reach competitive advantage. SHRM also creates a route for the organization to follow in trying to meet the business requirements of the company and at the same time satisfy the personal and shared requirements of the workforce (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).
2.3.1 Models of SHRM
Just like HRM, this framework also has two primary models: the general models and models that recommend specific methods in using SHRM.
2.3.1.1 General Models
Within this category, the three main perspectives are the universalistic, contingency and configurational methods. Later on, the first two methods were renamed as best practice and best fit, respectively.
2.3.1.1.1 Universalistic or best-practice
This view presumes that there exists HRM practices that are cut above the rest and can be considered as best practices. These are practices that have an encouraging and enhancing effect on the organization's operation across different levels and circumstances. According to a survey of 700 firms in different key industries, companies that utilize most of the considered best practices see higher annual shareholder profit and improved gross return on capital. Another report involving Forbes 500 firms shows that firms practicing 'best practices' enjoy elevated revenues, sales and profit per share. While a study of 6,000 workgroups in 34 companies affirm that these practices lead to increase in output and are associated with potential revenues. The best practices include: employee recruitment, performance appraisal, bonus systems, job plan, career development, grievance systems, information sharing, attitude evaluation and employee involvement (Akhtar & Mak 2003).
Other identified practices are promoting from within, proper training procedures, profit sharing, job security and well defined job descriptions. The universalistic approach asserts that a firm that uses more of the best practices will lead to an improved company. Studies have shown that there is a favorable relationship between monetary performance and the use of best practices (Delery & Doty, 1996). However, some think that a universal best practice is not possible for the reason that firms are different in terms of values, culture, administration approaches and tools available. Thus, a successful practice in one firm may not suit another because of the said differences. The success of a practice lies in how it is carefully customized to match the specific needs of the organization. Hence, proponents of the universalistic approach contend that the familiarity with the best practices could help organizations make informed decisions on what practices to use that will match their specific requirements (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). Among known groups of best practices, the most dominant is the group created by Pfeffer, which has initially 16 practices but was lately reduced into 7 practices including: employment security, selective hiring, self-managed teams, high compensation contingent on performance, training, reduction of status differences and sharing information (Chang & Huang, 2005).
Employment security: With the current economic downturn being experienced worldwide, companies are now turning to downsizing to achieve the short-term goal of regaining loss profit. However, Pfeffer (1998) argues that this move lacks strategic vision since letting people go only has temporary benefits but has lasting cost. He explained that once a company lays off its people, they are letting valuable assets, that they spend money on choosing, instructing and developing, in the hands of competitors. Companies should practice careful planning in their expansion strategy to avoid over expanding that could lead to redundant positions which are vulnerable to layoff during hard times. One technique that companies implement to avoid dismissal of employees is redeployment. This means displaced employees are assigned to do other work instead of letting them go. Assuring employees of security in their jobs makes them more trusting, cooperative, patient and motivated which would mean higher performance from them and higher production for the company (Pfeffer, 1998).
Another benefit is that companies will not have a hard time in implementing changes related to productivity. Since there is security at work, management can expect full cooperation from employees and because they do not have the anxiety of losing their jobs, productivity is likely to increase. Implementation of new methods and procedures will only be successful if the employees and management are in agreement. Changes in the company are usually perceived as negative by employees because they fear for their jobs and thus they do not usually share information or cooperate with management (Pfeffer, 1998). However with job security, employees are more than willing to support these changes and are gladly sharing information to management on how it can improve productivity more. As employees grow with the company, they tend to take a more lasting outlook about their work and performance in the firm. The employees think about building a career in the company and to do this they must safeguard the company's performance. This results to employees who take care of customers better to create a more lasting relationship or hardworking laborers that think about high daily output. This is only likely to happen if employees feel secure in their jobs. But this practice does not mean security for those not doing their jobs well or for those not trying to assimilate in themselves the culture of the company. This practice provides security to employees during times of economic recession or blunders of upper management, meaning situations in which employees do not have power over. Personal mistakes and erroneous conduct on the job are not encompassed in such security because performance is still of utmost importance. Firms offering job security currently may be limited but companies seeking to implement the other practices recommended by Pfeffer should consider this practice because other practices rely on a structure of shared trust between employees and management (Pfeffer, 1998).
Selective hiring: If a company sees its employees as a source for competitive advantage, then it is imperative that suitable people for the job and for the company are selected. The first step is the creation of a sizeable pool of applicants. Other companies may view processing of numerous applications as a needless cost but companies that seek the best people will like to ensure that they have enough people to choose from. The expense in finding the right people is justifiable by the advantage they bring in to the company. The second step is knowing what exact abilities and characteristics are needed by the company from the applicants. Before going through the laborious selection processes, the company should be clear on what exact qualifications they are actually looking for. In this way, the screening procedures could be designed in such a way so that these particular qualifications are filtered and assessed properly. For instance, interview questions can be designed to test the applicants' resourcefulness, attitude towards work or even wit. Ambiguous criteria will not help the selection processes and could result to hiring the wrong people for the job. A third consideration is that these abilities and characteristics be aligned with the work requisite and how the company manages its market. A job in sales which require dealing with people will need an applicant that has sales skills and a pleasing personality. Thus the company should look for applicants that possess skills in sales, have a pleasing personality and is willing to exert extra effort in the name of providing quality service. A fourth concern in the selection process is organization should look for applicants who will fit in the current culture and those that have the right attitudes rather than merely specialized skills that can be learned from training. This is because from the simple fact that a person's character and attitude cannot be easily removed and cannot be changed in days or weeks of training (Pfeffer, 1998).
Companies will have a harder time dealing with a stubborn employee that has attendance issues than with an employee lacking skills in Microsoft Office but is willing to learn. Employees that are hired solely for their technical skills but are not considered for culture fit within the company usually leave early and need to be replaced. This will impede productivity and the company will need again to spend in filling the position. Doing it once and doing it right will save the company time, effort and money. The fifth feature of this practice is that applicants should go through a stringent application procedure. This usually involves more than one interview with various key personnel and series of examination (Pfeffer, 1998). Meticulous selection processes like these result to applicants that are well inspected, committed and have a sense of pride. Since they go through various interviews and tests, the company is assured that the selected employees are at par with what they need. These individuals are surely committed to the job since they will not let themselves go through such trouble if they do not want the job. Lastly, once selected, the hired employees will have high spirits of being part of the cream of the crop. The last and sixth consideration is companies should evaluate the recruiting process. This could be done by following the performance of the hired employees. If the employee is doing well, the interviewer could give feedback on what qualities this particular employee possesses that caught his or her attention. However, if the employee is doing otherwise feedback on what quality the interviewer missed is also needed. Through this feedback system, the company can assess what areas need improvement and what part of the selection process could be retained or improved (Pfeffer 1998).
Self-managed teams: These are important elements of a well-performing management arrangement. Teams (a) replace hierarchical control of employees with peer-based control, (b) upon replacement of the hierarchical control layers of chain in command can be eliminated, and (c) these allow brainstorming of ideas that give way to more ingenious resolutions for work related issues (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).
Frequently, peer control proves to be more efficient than the traditional hierarchical control since employees are more likely to experience disappointment over a supervisor than a colleague or co-worker. Through teams, the responsibility of ensuring success is passed on to everyone in the organisation and not only to a handful of management staff. This motivates everyone to exert more effort since every employee is held responsible for the success or failure of the firm. Moreover, self-managing teams save the company money by removing unnecessary management positions. These positions are commonly high paying since they are managerial in nature. However, their functions can already be done by teams without the additional cost. With the removal of a bureaucratic system, the decision making is left on the hands of those who hold appropriate information to make the right choice. Lastly, by allowing teams to combine their ideas the solutions they come up with are very innovative and effective. Since they have first-hand experience about the issue, vital information about it are taken into consideration when they formulate the solution (Pfeffer, 1998).
High compensation contingent on performance: How much a company is willing to pay their employees reflect how much they value them as assets. Usually, high pay only comes once the organization reaches a certain level of success but it is rarely used as a precursor. However, paying employees higher than the average could bring in the success the company is looking for. This is because workers can now pour their time and effort in doing the job right rather than be bothered about their pay. Employees also do not leave their jobs immediately during down turns since high pay makes them feel secure about the job. Compensation like this can take up various forms, examples of which are: gain sharing, profit sharing, stock ownership, pay for skill, team incentives and share ownership. Contingent schemes like this are important in a company mainly because it is but fair to give credit to those that deserve it. If a company achieves financial success through the collective work of its employees, it is only right that they reap some from this success, instead of only compensating few shareholders and senior management. When employees know that their hard work will pay off, they are more likely to be more productive. On the other hand, if they feel that their efforts only benefit some, they are more likely to be less productive (Pfeffer, 1998).
Training: Front-line employees are the face of the company to the customers and it is essential that the organisation make sure that they are well equipped for their jobs. This can be done through extensive training and development of their skills and abilities. Companies differ in their views when it comes to training; others see it as essential practice and worth investing on but others feel that it is a mere expense without substantial return (Pfeffer, 1998). There is an apparent difference in how companies view their workforce. A company that is determined to commit itself to employment security policies is more like to train their employees because they intend to keep them in an extended period of time. While companies that are more likely to let go of employees easily will not invest much on training since they consider their people as expendable. As mentioned earlier, these practices are only effective if they are used in conjunction with the other practices discussed. Because training is a form of investment on the part of the company, as business it should also look into its return-on-investment or ROI. Studies have shown that ROI from training is very hard to measure because most of the benefits from this practice are intangible and cannot be measured quantitatively. Most companies that practice comprehensive training and development rely on the belief that profits are tied up with better trained employees (Pfeffer, 1998).
Reduction of status differences: A company that implements self-managed teams practice but does not take time to lessen the status differences among employees may find the team practice ineffective. This is because employees will only open up and voluntarily offer knowledge and cooperation if they feel that the organisation value them as equals. This could be done representatively through language, labels, dress codes and other physical incentives. Another way is by substantially minimizing wage inequality. Companies the foster a culture of equality usually do not make a big deal about titles. Even if the executives still have name plates bearing their big sounding titles they are usually first name basis with their employees. Their offices are open and there is no personal secretary. This kind of office setup sends out a message that the superior is open for everyone to see and talk to (Pfeffer, 1998).
In addition, executives also do not have special dining rooms but instead share the same food and dining space with everyone else. Through this arrangement, the executive management can observe how employees are actually doing and can personally talk to them about what they feel and think about the work and the company itself. Some executives actually testify that they learn more about the company situation from talking to employees than sitting and reading reports. Other companies implement a common parking space for both employees and senior management. Through the reduction of these symbolic status differences, employees are encouraged to open up and communicate with those in upper management. A setup like this reflects the open culture the company wants to build which is essential for an organization that supports growth and flexibility. Yet another way is through minimizing wage inequality. Some companies do this by creating policies that restrict the compensation senior management receives (Pfeffer, 1998).
Sharing information: To be able to implement most of these practices, the organization should be able to trust its employees and vice versa. Through sharing information, the company sends out the message that they trust their employees. Information that is essential to share include financial performance, business strategy and overall company actions (Pfeffer, 1998). Sharing this information gives the employees the power to evaluate their performance and help them make the right decisions on how they can improve it. This is a simple and very straightforward practice but most companies are still apprehensive about this practice. One cause for this is that information is power and by sharing essential information like financial performance the management is scattering that power. Another reason is that the management is concern about information escaping to competitors. This will put the organization in an unfavorable position. But what companies do not realize that the competition most probably already know this information. Thus if a company withheld information they are only leaving their own employees in the dark. Because of this, employees will reply on speculation and rumors that could only lead to confusion and distrust. An environment such as this is not beneficial to the performance of the employees (Pfeffer 1998).
2.3.1.1.2 Contingency or best-fit
Those that oppose the universalistic approach feel that there is no one best way to do business. There are intrinsic differences among organisations and recommending a universal way to do things will be impossible. That is why proponents of the contingency approach recommend instead a best fit approach. This means that the organisation will need to look and analyse the practices employed by leading companies in their industry. They will need to decide on which of these practices can be emulated, which are not fit with the current needs of the company and then study how these can be modified to be able to fit the organisation's peculiar circumstances. To be able to do this, companies usually use benchmarking. It is essential to learn what practices work for them, and most importantly what lessons could be learned from their success or failure. Businesses could start by identifying the current business needs that need to be addressed. Next examine what actions these business needs require. After which, they may formulate an action plan that incorporates different best practices that fit the identified needs and required actions (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).
Comparing this approach with the universalistic perspective, the contingent view sees that HR policies can be more successful if organizational and situation perspectives are properly incorporated. It is also more intricate in because there are numerous interactions or relationship will be involved. On the other hand, the universalistic is only concerned with linear relationships. In addition, proponents of the contingency perspective hypothesize that the correlation between independent and dependent variables will change once a contingency variable is introduced. In terms of SHRM the business strategy is the contingent variable this means that the firm needs to choose a philosophy behind the firm's strategy then indicate how each of the HR practices will align with the chosen strategy to be able to achieve business performance (Chang & Huang, 2005).
2.3.1.1.3 Configuration approach
According to this perspective, the success of an organisation's business strategy relies on the degree to which it matches the vertical or external fit and the horizontal or internal fit. This means that those companies that prepare bundles of HR practices are more likely to achieve high level of performance as long as its strategy achieves high levels of fit (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). The idea of fit in this description is always present in the discussion of SHRM. External fit is associated with the relationship between the HR policies and business strategy while internal fit deals with how the HRM practices are arranged and organised, whether they complement each other to be able to bring a positive effect to the organisation's performance (Chow, Huang & Liu, 2008).
This approach also focuses on the notion of bundling -- where HR practices are developed and implemented in conjunction so that they are interconnected facilitating the matching and strengthening of the bundled practices. The rationale behind this is that once the practices are bundled and are interconnected, they become consistent as a whole and because they have similarities, the practices bolster the intended effect. Another reason is since performance of the employee depends on their skills and drive, it is but logical to target both at the same time using HR practices. Skills can be improved using the selective hiring and training practices while employee drive can be targeted using job security or compensation schemes. All these practices as discussed earlier can complement and be interconnected with one another. In one study, it was found out that when best practices are used together with complementing HR practices, the result is an increase in performance as well as increase in the effect of the complementing practices. Bundling aims to gain unity among the practices of the company, which is one of the consequences in implementing SHRM. Unity only happens when multiple practices and policies reinforce one another to be able to attain the goals of the organisation (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).
2.3.2 High-performance Working Model
This model deals with the creation of interconnected methods that can affect the performance of the organisation by means of production, quality, degree of customer service, progress, revenue and lastly improving shareholder value. It can be attained by improving the abilities of the employees and keeping their motivation up. To start this, there should be strong leadership from the management, a clear vision and carefully studied benchmark. By doing this the initiative will have a drive and path to follow. Main drivers of the model are (Armstrong & Baron, 2002):
1) Power is dispersed to those employees dealing with the customer first-hand -- to give them more ways in refreshing the customer experience.
2) Training at all levels of the company, to improve skills in self- management and team abilities -- to facilitate improvements in performance and encourage the capability of the organization.
3) Methods in implementation, operation and workforce are all parallel with the goals of the organization -- this is to create trust, motivation and loyalty among the employee as they are guided to where the firm wants to be.
4) Employees leaving the organization due to changes are treated justly and being committed to the social responsibility of the organization to the community -- this signals that the corporation values trust and is committed to the relationship it has both within and outside of the organization.
Various practices are involved when a company decides to implement a high-performance working model and some of these are: meticulous application and hiring procedures, comprehensive and appropriate training and development programs, compensation schemes and procedures for accomplishment management (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). Once the model is implemented, there are certain obstacles that it may face. One is that some managers might oppose the model and refuse the dispersion of power. With this model, the organization will become decentralized and the chain of command will be eliminated causing some managers to lose control over their subordinates. According to research, managers that are less informed about developments in people management are more likely to resist this model. This is because they believe in the traditional practices that do not trust employees and leave total control to few individuals only. However, managers that value quality products and excellent service, educate themselves with the latest techniques available and are more likely to welcome this model. Another barrier for its implementation is that it can be very expensive and more often than not most organizations miscalculate the cost and benefits that it will yield (Gill, 2008).
Most proponents of the model recommend that companies implement it only in low to moderate coverage where the benefits outweigh the cost. Studies have shown that expense incurred in high levels of implementation of the model prevail over the benefits. Since this model is expensive to implement and results are not seen immediately then most shareholders will reject its implementation. This is because they are more concern about short-term returns. Stocks are loosely owned commodity that if often traded for profits. Companies take care of their stockholders by making sure that the money they invested is returned immediately instead of creating more value for that stock. Since this model has a delay in returns, managers proposing it will surely receive resistance from shareholders (Gill, 2008). Others also think that the government where the company does business with has an indirect participation in the formation of a business environment that is conducive for this model. It is through policies that the Government mandates on how the organization should do business together with the privileges and responsibilities of everyone in the organization. Lastly, managers can also meet resistance from the employees that will be affected by the change once the model is implemented. It can happen especially if the employees feel that the management is introducing the change to replace them. As initially discussed, without trust employees are less cooperative with management initiatives. For this model to work and be successful, it is essential that employees are willing to be trained, are proactive in sharing ideas and are dedicated in giving quality products and excellent service. All of these are achievable if the employee trusts and cooperates with management. However, these are very hard to maintain since there has been a long history of distrust among managers and employees globally. What management can do is to offer programs that can build and maintain this trust just like systems that offer job security (Gill, 2008).
2.3.3 High-commitment Management Model
One crucial factor in this model is the focus on improving the mutual commitment of the employee and management. This model can be defined as a management style that relies on the high level of trust between managers and employees so that employees' conduct is governed by the employees themselves instead of supervisors pressuring them with penalty. This also intends to obtain stronger commitment from employees (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). It also deals with hiring procedures that intend to interest and hire only dedicated and adaptable personnel, dedication and willingness to learn are awarded by job advancement and employment security and procedures for open communication and collaboration (Hutchinson, Kinnie & Purcell, 2000). There are different ways to gain this high commitment and here are some of the recommended ways (Armstrong & Baron, 2002):
1) Creation of career paths that focus on dedication and willingness to learn as the most important characteristic of an employee seeking promotion at any level within the firm
2) Strict job definitions should be eliminated instead highly functional adaptability should be implemented
3) Hierarchy in the chain of command should be flattened out and to remove status difference between the executives and common employee
4) Teams should be trusted that they will do what they are supposed to do which is information dissemination, working as team in a structured way, and solving problems as a team
5) Management should carefully analyse and design the jobs offered to make sure they are not redundant and can offer substantial amount of satisfaction to the employee
6) The organization should be willing to embrace a policy that guarantee job security even during times of economic downturn, redeployment could be used rather than lay-offs and offer part-time positions during irregular high demand to avoid hiring permanent employees that will soon become redundant
7) Introduce better compensation schemes like profit sharing and also evaluation procedures for performance
8). Include the workforce quality management as well as other initiatives
2.4 Training and Development
Training is not what it used to be as organizations continue to change so as the field of training and development of employees. Employees are essential tool of the organization in moving forward towards competitive advantage and the HR needs to follow through by providing the necessary programs to enhance the skills and knowledge of the employees. Organizations as observed in the past years continue to eliminate hierarchical chains of command and management is flattened out. With this, power is dispersed giving the employees a chance to hold power over critical decisions, however they should be prepared to handle such power for the organization to benefit. This is where training and development comes in, to help employees prepare themselves in the coming changes and equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to be able to handle new responsibilities brought about by change.
Orientations in Training: Since training should cast away from traditional thinking any organization that wanted to have competitive advantage through its people will need to focus on the following factors and should be integrated in their training and development program.
Strategic Orientation: Training should be carefully designed in accordance with the mission, business strategy, tools and culture of the organization. This is to make sure that the training is at par with what is happening within the organization. It should be in line with the overall business strategy and is designed to follow the same direction as the company. It must answer the needs of the employees as well as of the upper management and must be compatible with the type of employees the organization has. Once employees undergo the training, the program aims to make them more efficient, adaptable, accommodating and motivated. If the training module is designed in accordance with the business strategies, it becomes a strategic tool for the organization to mold its employees to the direction it wants to take (Sims, 1998).
In addition to considering the internal situations within the company, HR should also be concerned with external or environmental situations to make the module more comprehensive. Through this way HR could achieve the needed flexibility from the employees (Sims, 1998). They are not only skilled in dealing with internal issues of the organization but are also skilled in adapting to external factors. To take this strategic approach, the Training department or HR department should conduct the following activities (a) identify existing training being executed and assess whether they are still needed; (b) examine within the training programs which modules can be removed; (c) remaining training modules should be re-evaluated on how these can more aligned with the business strategy and reinforce the mission and vision of the organization; and (d) identify new modules that can be added to strengthen the training program. The underlying principle in this orientation is that a training that is aligned with the existing strategies and future direction of the organization can greatly increase performance (Sims, 1998).
Customer Orientation: For training to be fully encompassing and effective, some organizations take time to involve their customers in the design of training programs. This is just logical since the customers are the first persons to experience the benefits of training. Take for example a sales representative that just received training about the store's product, etiquette and conduct. This employee will surely be able to answer all the questions of the customer about the product he is interested and it is also possible that the sales representative could offer additional information that the customer might not know about the product (Sims, 1998). And since etiquette and conduct was included, the representative will be more cordial and accommodating to the customer. This could result to a sure sale plus a satisfied customer. Thus, is important to hear out what the customer thinks about the company's service or product to be able to know the areas that need further improvement. Their feedback should be taken into consideration since they know first-hand what works for them and what does not. Acquiring their feedback can be done through surveys, commentaries, interviews and letters or e-mails. With the advancement of technology, there are various ways this could be done. Taking this step signals to the customer that they are valued and that the organization cares about what they think (Sims 1998).
Performance Improvement Orientation: Employees should be assisted by training to enable them to reach high levels of performance so that the organization can correspondingly reach its goals with a high level success. Training can do this by (1) helping employees do their current job right now by giving them training programs and modules that are actually needed at the moment. These should be given at the right time and at the right frequencies; and (2) providing assistance to future requirements of the job as the demands change. This may be done through designing a learning model that can help the workforce and organization learn and grow with the change. The double responsibility of training can be achieved by focusing on the key skills and knowledge that the workforce needs at the moment and in the future. The Training Department will need to identify these key skills and knowledge and then build the training program around it. Trainers and training managers could make use of practices that are found to be successful to a related organization. As mentioned above the organization does not need to copy it as is, but try to learn from their success and failure of similar others to be able to develop a unique practice suitable to their own requirements (Sims, 1998).
Accountability Orientation: When a company is faced with a recession, most will think twice about spending on unnecessary investments and sometimes training is sacrificed in favor of other investments. Training personnel are then responsible for making sure that training programs are not seen as such by designing these as cost-effective, flexible, relevant, and as possible, and for which they have clear accountability. The Training department should make sure that the contents of the training are relevant and is needed by the organization. Moreover, they should make use of the available resources the organization as to offer; therefore, the design should be flexible enough so that it can adjust to unexpected situations. Options should be available on how the training could be delivered to the employees, and there should be a system of assessment to ensure that the training program was able to reach its aims (Sims, 1998).
2.4.1 Training and SHRM
As discussed above training was considered to be one of the best practices an organization can implement to be able to successfully adapt SHRM. In fact, Martin's (2007) theoretical framework features training as critical variable determining managerial performance of managers. Martins (2007) conducted a study to be able to determine the main variables that influence the management of human resources of first tier managers. The investigation has been carried out in an aerospace manufacturing company through interviews and running records of the organization. In the theoretical framework which Martins (2007) validated in the study, training and development is a variable that affect the performance of first tier managers, along with a clear definition of their roles, their perceptions and attitudes, and broader organizational support.
Wilson (1994) shares that managers are asked to manage effectually, they need to be equipped with competencies to enable them to do so. Thus, they need both soft and technical skills to enable effective management, consistent with holistic development. Successful management of their staff is not possible if management does not have the good will to allot financial resources to push this thrust. Such management investment represents the concern of management towards its employees, which in turn causes them to be more committed and engaged with the enterprise (Santos & Stewart, 2003). In a study cited by Santos & Stewart (2003 as cited by Martins, 2007), the Employment Survey in Britain revealed 94% of the sample saying that training has been useful for them in terms of financial personal benefit, according them with opportunities to move up the corporate ladder, being more qualified for their current and for future posts, and increasing their organizational engagement.
Figure ____. Four-factor framework on variables affecting performance of first-tier managers.
Source: Martins, L.P. (2007). A holistic framework for the strategic management of first tier managers. Management Decision, 45(3), 619.
However, it should be noted that training should be conducted in conjunction with other HR practices to be able to achieve the needed improvement in performance that SHRM aims for. Training itself is just a tool of the organization to be able to prepare its employees for the changes that will come together with the implementation of SHRM. Organizations serious in taking their people to a new direction should carefully study what practices they really need to get to where they want to be. The relationship between training and the SHRM models is illustrated below:
Training
Universalistic
Attitudes and motivation
Behaviors
Human capital
Contingency
Performance and productivity
Configurational
Profit and financial indicators
Source: Moore, Saks & Tharenou (2007)
Figure 1: Relationship between training and SHRM
Based on the holistic approach to training needs analysis, it should be carried out with a view or organizational needs. This suggests that there must be careful consideration of company strategy in doing training needs analysis.
On the communication of company strategy, Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed (2007) set out to determine which communication means are most commonly utilized by employees to garner data about strategy. Moreover, they have assessed the influence of seniority on each of the means selected. The setting for the investigation is a manufacturing organization based in Saudi Arabia, with a combination of both managerial and rank and file employees being employed in the study, totaling 187 respondents answering the survey tool in all. The findings of the study indicate that the incumbents are not satisfied with the present information that they have about enterprise strategy. Moreover, results likewise indicate that communication vehicles such as personal dialogue and group sessions are rated more effective compared to bulletin boards, memoranda and company news. Moreover, those who have longer tenure make use of more varied means of communication to be able to yield information on strategy (Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed, 2007). As such, the researchers suggest that managers be able to leverage on communication means to allow their subordinates to have a more profound appreciation of company strategy. There is a need to re-orient managers on the use of more effective communication vehicles for this purpose (Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed, 2007). The following empirical study point out the promise of training needs analysis as yet another vehicle for communicating company strategy.
This study shows that training needs analysis may also be used to facilitate organizational change, suggesting further its strategic value in HRM. Reed & Vakola (2006) have investigated the feasibility of utilizing a training needs analysis tool for making an impact on an enterprise's change process. The enterprise that served as the subject of the investigation is a large-scale, complicated health system that is in the process of migrating from a conventional hierarchy with centralized power to one in which employees are more empowered. Thus, a training needs analysis tool has been crafted to aid in the effort, so that the outcomes desired from the change intervention may be more easily attained. The tool has also been envisioned to expedite the identification of what is effective and what is not to be able to push for the strategic change agenda of the enterprise (Reed & Vakola, 2006).
A collateral learning structure has been established for this purpose and interviews have been carried out with key officers of the organization to be able to garner their perspective about the change process, its rationale and urgency, the key people involved, and the degree to which it will be beneficial for them. There are salient findings that have been yielded from the study. One is there are cultural and change management issues that have been gathered from the training needs analysis tool. Yet another result is the idea that the training needs analysis instrument has been effectively introduced as a change management tool. Moreover, being able to associate the process of needs analysis with the current processes of the enterprise was a critical facet in the effectiveness of the exercise, and which allowed participants to more clearly comprehend its strategic value. The training needs analysis process has been meaningfully dovetailed to each party in the enterprise, by carefully considering the peculiar needs, circumstances, and readiness for change of those who were involved (Reed & Vakola, 2006).
2.4.2 Training Methods
One of the most common training methods uses the lecture or seminar (Bassi & Van Buren, 1998). With this approach, either a member of the training staff or outside consultant lectures to a few or many employees at one time. To save money, in-house staff are used when a training program is presented many times and when the training staff has the time and expertise to deliver the training. As with college lectures, many activities can take place within a seminar, including lecture, the use of audiovisual aids, discussion, and question-and-answer periods (Fowler, 1995). Listening to lectures and watching videos can indeed be boring, but research has indicated that lecture is still an effective training method (Goldstein, 1993). Many trainers, however, do not consider lecture to be an effective training technique (Carroll, Paine, & Ivancevich, 1972).
Yet another training method is simulation exercises, which allow the trainee to work with equipment and in an environment similar to that found in the actual job. The exercises offer the advantage of allowing the trainee to work under actual working conditions without the consequences of mistakes (Lierman, 1994).
The use of role play allows the trainee to perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out simulated roles. It is used in many types of training situations, from supervisors practicing performance appraisal reviews to sales clerks taking customer orders. Though role plays allow employees to practice what is being taught, they are not for everyone. Many employees feel uneasy and embarrassed about being required to "act." This reluctance can be reduced to some extent by using warm-up exercises and praising employees after they participate (Becker, 1998).
One of the most successful training methods has been behaviour modeling. Behaviour modeling is similar to role play except that trainees role play ideal behaviour rather than the behaviour they might normally perform. The behaviour modeling technique begins first with a discussion of a problem, why it occurred, and the employee behaviours necessary to correct the problem. Next, the employees view a videotape of another employee who correctly solves the problem (Mann & Decker, 1984).
Apprentice training is used by more than 50,000 people annually and is typically found in craft and trades such as carpentry and plumbing. Despite its increased popularity, some researchers have criticized apprenticeship programmes. First, the emphasis during the apprenticeship often is in the production of work as opposed to teaching new skills to the apprentice (Strauss, 1967). Second, employers often shun apprenticeships for fear that the apprentice will become a competitor or join a competing company.
Coaching is another popular method of training new employees. With coaching, a new employee is assigned to an experienced employee, who is told to "show the kid the ropes." Coaching provides just-in-time training, flexible scheduling, customized training, and a small financial commitment than many other types of training (Leeds, 1996).
2.4.3 Culture and Training and Development
Before discussing how culture effects training and development, it is appropriate to define what culture is. Peterson (1997:64) quotes Kluckhohn (1951), who defines culture as "patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting that are acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols and that constitute the distinctive achievement of a human group."
Johnson (1991) provides an example of a lack of "fit" of western management strategies in the third world countries. He stated that most third world countries do not support individualism. Their cultures are collectivist in nature. He suggests that though collectivism does not preclude leadership, it does suggest that training programme for third world countries need to be designed within the collectivist philosophy. Hofstede (1980), quoted in Weir (1966:399), observe that "Arab countries are mid-way between the highly westernised countries which rate strongly on individualism, and the Latin Americans societies which rank at the other extreme."
Huang (1996) support the view that culture has to be taken into consideration when designing training programmes. He remarks that although human nature and the human brain operate in the same way the world over, people from other cultures speak different language and behave differently. Each country has its own values, beliefs, ideas, and views of the world. If the trainer does not understand the characteristics of trainee's culture, history, and socio-economic background, even the best programme will not be effective.
Schermerhorn (1994) carried out an interview with Asma Abdullah, a corporate trainer in inter-cultural management. Although she conducted training programmes in Malaysia, her finding are applicable to training programmes in other countries as well. Asma Abdullah emphasises that training programmes must start with understanding of values at the individual as well of the culture levels. The influence of ethnic values is very important in making employees acquire the appropriate skills on the job. It has to start with self-appreciation and only then can employees find meaning on what they do. To her, effective training will only occur when the person's personal and cultural values have been identified and taken into consideration. When this area is ignored, training will not be successful when only foreign elements is being introduced.
Corporate trainer Asma Abdullah was asked about the best approach to take for training in a foreign environment. She stated that the value of the participants must be affirmed; specially those which are part of their cultural heritage and are the basis of their shared practices. Once these values are indentified, then one can begin to look for gaps in performance and create an awareness of what is needed. The trainer will then focus on the steps to be taken to develop new skills. For example, if the trainer wants to talk about motivating, leading, negotiating, selling or speaking, it is best to start with what the learners do well before showing some chart on Maslow's theory, Posner's leadership practices, or selling skills from some standard package that has been develop elsewhere. Many foreign trainers make grave errors because they do not consider the values and beliefs of the trainee's culture. Training must make a fit with the culture of those being trained, including the material being taught, as well as the methods being used.
Abu-Doleh (1996) reports that Al-Faleh (1987), in his study of the culture influences on Arab management development, asserts that "a country's culture has a great influence on the individual and managerial climate, on organizational behaviour, and ultimately on the types of management development programmes offered." Furthermore, he argues that culture has its roots in a long history of traditions, in religion, and in past and present philosophical, or economic ideology.
Alabdlohab (1987) indicates that cultural factors cannot be ignored in training programmes. To ignore these factors can make the difference between success and failure. Although Arab countries want to develop economically and modernise their cities, most do not such progress to have a negative effect on their culture and way of life that they have lived for hundreds of years. Managers and workers should not be forced to conform to Western way of doing business even though they may have to deal with them perhaps on a daily basis. The first step in developing training programmes in Arab countries is understanding the culture and those factors within the culture that have an influence on the life and work of the people. The second step is to recognize the fact that these countries are in the process of economic development and modernization, and that these are to be achieved without changing the culture or significantly changing the way of their daily life. Culture values, religion, tribal customs, and tradition, all play a major role not on a daily life but also in the way which business is conducted. The third step is the designing of training programmes that will not compromise these values while at the same time, assist people in the development of business and industry that will promote economic growth and development within the country and give it a greater participation in the international marketplace.
2.4.4 Training and Development in Arab Countries
The need for human resources in the Arab countries is tremendous if nationals are to be available to support business and industry in both the private and public sectors. The need lies, among others, at the managerial level of all sectors such as hospitals, banks, marketing, exporting, factory and production management. Because of the shortage, most Arab countries have had to recruit foreign managers temporarily for posts usually set apart for nationals, until sufficient numbers are qualified to assume those responsibilities adequately (Atiyya, 1993).
One of the current problems for managers in Arab countries is the management development programmes offered by local institutes are translated from foreign sources and not written with Arab managers in mind. Trainers are often heard complaining about text books, exercises, and cases having little relevance to their situation. Most films used in training are imported. Only one agency, the Saudi Arabian Institute of Public Administration, has staff actively involved in the adaptation of programmes and equipment to the local needs. Many Arab managers who learned their skills from experience on the job believe that the best way to prepare future Arab managers is on the job, rather than investing large sums of money in training programmes that do not meet their needs (Atiyyah: 1993).
2.4.5 The Importance of Training Needs Analysis
Witkin & Altshud (1995) represent training needs assessment as a process that involves three stages, namely the phases before, during, and after the assessment or evaluation proper. Succinctly, the period before the assessment proper involved scanning the situation and the circumstances within which needs are to be identified. The main output of this stage is the initial plan for the next stage. Boydell (1976) argues that a training need is present when the conduct of training will enable the adequate resolution of a specific improvement area. Moreover, he shares that the analysis of a training need must be effective before training becomes relevant. This idea is held in common with Bee & Bee (2003) who assert that the identification of training needs must be driven by operational issues.
Bowman & Wilson (2008) opine that training needs analysis is critical in enabling a successful and effective development cycle, which involves the stages of training design, implementation, and assessment. In addition, they point out the difficulties in carrying out the process, attributed to the different parties that have a take on it. These may cause differences in their perceptions of the intended outcomes and what needs to be attained. Yet another difficulty is the idea that external providers may face issues when they depend upon analyses that are imposed upon them, and in which they have not been part of. The quality of such analysis is crucial in ensuring that whatever is being offered in training is what the workforce needs for increased leverage in their niche (Bowman & Wilson, 2008). They thus suggest that a training needs analysis needs to be carefully carried out to increase the probability of success of the other stages which strongly rely on TNA's effectiveness. Bowman & Wilson's (2008) view is supported by Kenney & Reid (1986) who suggest that the comprehensiveness of training strongly depend on the quality of the training needs analysis.
Kaufman & Watkins (1996) suggest that this first stage is critical in determining the effectiveness of the whole training needs assessment process. The core exercise in the second stage of the training needs assessment is the gathering of empirical information, otherwise known as data. They recommend that a mixed methods approach be adopted in carrying out this task to be able to gather data that validates each other; thus, quantitative data from surveys, for instance, may be validated with interviews which are primarily qualitative. Such information are processed by Witkin & Altshud (1995) in terms of system levels. Briefly, System Level 1 involves individuals from the recipients of the system being investigated. On the other hand, System Level 2 pertain to those parties who provide the services to System Level 1 clients, e.g. HR training providers and managers. Finally, System Level 3 involves the resources that are entailed in the delivery of the system, encompassing material and human resources. The core outcomes of this stage are the qualifiers for effectiveness in meeting the needs at each system level (Wilkin & Altshuld, 1995). The third stage following the assessment deals with an evaluation of the whole process and the manner by which this was carried out. The main output of this stage are executive reports and briefings (Wilkin & Altshuld, 1995).
2.4.6 The Process of Training Needs Analysis
Training needs analysis is the first step in the development of an employee training system (McCahon, Rys & Ward, 1996; Schneier, Guthrie, & Olian, 1998). It is the process of determining the training needs of a particular organization. It is likewise expected that there are times when this process points to the fact that training is not the solution to an enterprise's pressing issues and may only be a palliative at best (Carr, 1994).
Sleezer (1993) puts forth a model that conducts analysis at three fronts: organizational, task, and person.
Figure ____. Types of analysis: Training needs.
Organizational analysis: The objective of organizational analysis is to identify where within the organization training is needed. Goldstein (1993) and Schuler and Jackson (1996) note that any organization analysis involves analysing the whole organization, and begins with an examination of the short- and long- terms objectives of the organization. Scarpello and Ledvinka (1988) argue that there is no easy and direct method to achieve this process. However, Cascio (1992) mentioned that the important question at this level is "Will training produce change in employee behaviour that will contributor to our organization's goals?" (p.237). Broadwell (1993) asserts that the purpose of organizational analysis is to determine those organizational factors that either facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness. The exercise ought to include a survey of employee readiness for training. Training is deemed effective only if the organization is willing to provide a supportive climate for training; if it can afford an effective program and if the goals of the program are consistent with those of the organization.
Wexley and Latham (1991) propose that organization analysis consists of an examination of the following factors:
1- The relationship between the organizational and its external environment so as to determine the links between external variables and the needs for training and development.
2- How effective the organization and its various sub-units are in researching the objectives they set out to achieve.
3- The organization's human resources, to assess current and long-term training and development requirements.
4- The organization's internal environment, to identify those problem areas that can be tackled by means of training and development, and those which could potentially constitute unusually strong resistance to change.
The organization needs analysis must be conducted by the managers who set the organization goals (Cascio, 1992; Goldstein; Taylor, 1996).
Wexley and Latham (1991) and Taylor (1996) stress that the primary objective of organization analysis is to determine whether the organization is achieving its stated objectives. If it is not, the analysis must provide answers as to why that is the case and to what extent the deficiencies could be remedied through training and development section.
Task analysis: Involves establishing what the content of the training proframme should be, based on analysis of the tasks or duties involved in the job (Chruden and Sherman, 1984). Goldstein (1993:22) points out that "the first step is a job description in behavioural terms. It is not a description of the worker. The narrative specifies the individual's duties and the special condition under which the job is performed. The second procedure, most commonly referred to as task specification, further denotes all the tasks required on the job so that eventually the particular skills, knowledge, and attitude required to perform the job will become clear."
Moreover, Armstrong (1996:538-539) points out that for training purposes, it is important to ensure that the information obtained from this analysis specifies:
1- Any problem faced by job holders in learning the basic skills and applying them successfully.
2- Any weaknesses in the performance of existing job holders arising from gaps in knowledge, lack of skill or poor motivation which need to be certified by training.
3- Any areas where competence levels are clearly not up to the standards required.
4- Any areas where future changed in work processes, methods or job responsibilities indicates a learning need.
5- How training is carried out at present -- and how effective it is.
Armstrong (ibid) concludes that the output of the job analysis should be a training specification. Cascio (1992:238) agrees that "job analysis, performance appraisals, interviews (with jobholders, supervisors, and higher management), and analyses of operating problems (quality control, downtime reports, and customers complaints) all provide important input to the analysis of training needs." He also indicates that managers who specify how the organization's goals are going to be achieved are responsible for analysing the hob analysis needs. Sims, Veres & Heninger (1989) define task analysis as a process that involves using the job analysis method to obtain information about the job itself as well as the overall performance of the employees responsible for each of the tasks. Part of this process is determining whether there is a training program for each important task. Task analysis is important because training will be effective only if it addresses an area in which employees are weak. If every employee in an organization is already proficient at a particular task, it would be futile to provide them with training on this task. Likewise, if the organization is not aware of a particular training need and thus does not provide training in that areas, employee performance will be less optimal (Gent & Dell'Omo, 1989). Moreover, it is important to that training needs arising from task analysis be stated in the form of objectives. These should concretely state what learners are expected to do; the conditions under which they are expected to do it; and the level at which they are expected to do it (Mager, 1984).
Person analysis: Is the final step in identifying training needs and it focuses on whether the individual employees needs training and, if so, of what kind (McGehee and Thayer, 1961). Cascio (1992) and Schuler and Jackson (1996) assert that the difference between desired performance and actual performance is the individual's training needs.
According to Bass and Vaughan (1966), quoted in Scarpello and Ledvinka (1988:495), the information about a person's job behaviour can be obtained by:
1- Directly observing job performance.
2- Reviewing supervisory evaluations of performance.
3- Using diagnostic tests, such as written ability tests and work samples.
4- Comparing the behaviours of well -- performing employees with those of poorly performing employees.
5- Discussing with employees their individual job performance and factors that may inhibit that performance.
Scarpello and Ledvinka (ibid) also indicate that once performance deficiency is identified, the next step is to determine whether it can be remedied by training or whether it is due to other factors.
According to Wexley and Latham (1991), the personal job analysis comprises two parts: the first part relates to how well a worker effectively performs the job. This can be assessed using any of the three methods: (1) observing the worker's behaviour while performing the job; (2) recording the production rate in a given time; and (3) applying proficiency tests to measure worker performance. Other economic performance indicators include data such as workers' injuries, absenteeism, tardiness and waste. The second part of personal analysis entails identifying the skills, knowledge, and attitude necessary for the worker to perform the job satisfactorily. Cascio (1992) stresses that the individual needs analysis should be carried out by managers and workers who do the work to achieve those goals.
The needs analysis is determining which employees need training and in which areas. Person analysis is based on the recognition that not every employee needs further training for every task performed. Person analysis uses one or more of the following methods for each employee: performance appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and critical incidents (McGehee & Thayer, 1961).
Performance appraisal scores may show low ratings on a particular dimension may indicate that additional training on that dimension is needed. Conversely, if most employees score high on a particular dimension, relatively little training is needed. Although using performance scores appear fairly easy as a method of needs assessment, there are problems that can interfere with their use. One is the ratings errors which can reduce the accuracy of performance appraisal scores. The most relevant are leniency errors and strictness errors. If the performance appraisal scores are consistently high because of leniency error, a human resource professional might incorrectly conclude that employees are proficient in a particular area and thus need no training, Likewise, consistently low scores might be interpreted as a need for training, when in fact, the actual cause of the low scores is rater error (Herbert & Doverspike, 1990).
Another problem is that rarely are there situations in which all employees score either high or low on a dimension. Instead, it is more common for only a few employees to score poorly. In this case, a person examining the average performance appraisal score might conclude that training in a particular dimension is unnecessary. But the conclusion would only be partially correct. While it is true that not everyone needs training in that dimension, concluding that training should not be conducted would be incorrect. The correct interpretation is that training should be conducted for the few employees who scored low for that dimension. Moreover, the current performance management system may not provide the type of information needed to conduct a training needs analysis (Herbert & Doverspike, 1990).
Another common approach to determine training needs is designing and administering a survey that asks employees what knowledge and skills they believe should be included in future training (Brinkerhoff, 1986). Surveys offer several advantages. Surveys eliminate the problems of performance-rating errors. In addition, employees often know best their own strengths and weaknesses. It is thus advantageous to ask employees about what they needs (Graham & Mihal, 1986). Training needs can also be determined by surveys even when the organization has not previously made an effort to design an effective performance appraisal system or adequate job descriptions. The main disadvantage to surveys is that employees may not be honest and that the organization may not be able to afford the training suggested by employees (Graham & Mihal, 1986).
Training needs surveys may be conducted in many ways. The most common method is a questionnaire that asks employees to list the areas in which they would like further or future training. One means is to provide a list of job-related tasks and knowledge, and have the employees rate the need for training on each task and knowledge. The results of these ratings are given to supervisors who can validate the results. This process is used to determine whether the supervisors agree with their employees' perceptions and to prioritize training needs (Graham & Mihal, 1986).
One other means of conducting needs analysis is through interviews which are usually done with a selected number of employees. Interviews are not used as extensively as surveys, but can yield even more in-depth answers to questions about training needs (Cline & Seibert, 1993). The main advantage of interviews is that employee feelings and attitudes are revealed more clearly than with survey questionnaires. The main disadvantage of interviews is that data are often difficult to quantify and analyse (Steadham, 1980).
One other means of determining training needs is through knowledge and skills tests. If majority of employees score poorly in such tests, training across the organization is indicated. If only a few employees score poorly, they are singled out for individual training. The main issue with using testing as a method to determine training needs is that relatively few tests are available for this purpose. An organization that intends to use this method may probably have to construct its own tests, and proper construction may be time consuming and expensive (Steadham, 1980).
The critical incident technique entails the sorting out of critical incidents into dimensions to be able to garner examples of good and poor performance. Dimensions with many examples of poor performance are considered to be areas in which many employees are performing poorly and in which additional training is indicated (Glickman & Vallance, 1958).
2.5 Gaps in the present literature and the conceptual model for this study
In the aforementioned section, the writer reviewed a number of research studies carried out in the past. Most research studies had used the survey method as their data collection process and quantitative or qualitative analysis as their data analysis. Similarly, some studies had used field research and direct observation as their data collection method. Likewise, a few studies had been syntheses of research studies published in online libraries. The writer finds that the research methodologies of the research studies that used field research and research syntheses as their methodologies are very strong. However, the studies that used the survey method may need to be analyzed more deeply and broadly.
With regards to the field studies, the researchers collected original information at the physical location, instead of relying on previous materials or surveys. Their data analysis and results are also very profound since they used readings from different oxygen apparatus in their statistical analysis. Similarly, the studies that used research syntheses as their data collection methodologies also had very strong methods since they abided by the conventional protocols of research syntheses studies.
With regards to the studies carried out via means of survey, their research approach had been mostly deductive, which means that they used a theory to form hypotheses; thereafter a research strategy was designed to either confirm or refute the hypotheses. This approach may give very accurate and precise results; however, the current literature does not fully reveal sound theoretical frameworks with regards to TNA. It would have been beneficial if researchers had approached their studies using a dual method of both induction and deduction. With deduction they could have used existing theories to form hypotheses and then test it. (Their chosen method) However, with induction, first data would have been collected in the form of interviews and then it is analyzed so that a theory/hypothesis can be formed (Saunders et al., 2003).
The use of dual methods of induction and deduction would have helped their studies add a new methodological dimension to the literature. The results could have been compared with existing theories of effectiveness of TNA in the current literature. This would have helped them understand why there is lack of protocols and what newer concepts can be added in the theories. The advantage of using both, induction and deduction, as research approaches is that they could have helped them limit the dependency on over generalizations (Saunders et al., 2003).
Furthermore, with regards to timeline, almost all studies used a cross-sectional format. It is noteworthy here that cross-sectional research studies focus on a single time frame i.e. researchers only take a single time-segment from the entire spectrum. In other words, they perform their experiments only once and reply on the data they have gathered to form conclusions. The opposite of cross-sectional format is the longitudinal format, which as the name suggests takes multiple time-segments from the entire spectrum. These research studies ignored the significance of a longitudinal design, may be because of limited funding. However, since studies on TNA in Saudi Arabia are lacking it would have been beneficial if researchers embarked upon a longitudinal format and included more variables into their study.
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