1789 and 1989: Comparing Global Revolutionary Movements

Introduction: Two Revolutionary Years

In his essay "1789–1792 and 1989–1992: Global Interaction of Social Movements," historian Patrick Manning draws a parallel between the events of 1789 — the year of the storming of the Bastille and the beginning of the French Revolution — and those of 1989. The year 1989 encompassed the successful movement to unite the two Germanys and end Soviet dominion over Eastern Europe, as well as the unsuccessful pro-democracy movement in China. Because of their powerful, symbolic nature, these events are often interpreted as just that — singular events. Manning, however, believes that such social movements cannot be understood in isolation; they should instead be understood as international phenomena. As he writes, "Even these most macro-oriented of the analysts of social movements have tended, however, to focus on social revolutions as independent cases, rather than emphasize their connections to each other. In recent years, some social historians have explored social movements at transnational levels, emphasizing their long-term patterns of development" (Manning, par. 7).

Manning argues that inequality between the Estates General, higher taxes, and food shortages were undeniable contributors to the French Revolution. But the American Constitutional Convention and its creation of a written constitution, anti-slavery movements, and agrarian revolts also influenced demands for parity, justice, and ultimately revolution in France. Manning contends that these international examples provided models or templates for social justice movements in France and elsewhere. The storming of the Bastille may have been the most cinematic moment of all the revolutionary occurrences of 1789, but the spread of anti-slavery crusades in Europe and Africa, and the demand for the rights of disenfranchised peasants and laborers in America, cannot be ignored. The French learned about these events through a cross-pollination of information around the globe, suggesting that revolutionary France cannot be understood in international isolation.

Manning's Framework: Revolutions as International Phenomena

"By 1792, black sailors arriving at Salvador in Bahia were reputed to have worn medallions celebrating the slave uprising…In early 1792 the move to abolish slave trade appeared to be gaining irreversible momentum" (Manning, par. 31–32). Furthermore, the fears that the French regicide inspired generated movements either toward moderate liberalization — dampening radical furor, as in England — or toward more autocratic rule.

After Manning draws his parallels, it becomes difficult to ignore the resonances between the two eras. Like 1789, 1989 was a year of both successful and unsuccessful mass revolts. In each nation that experienced unrest, there was a long, specific, and personal history of oppression, but the oppressed drew conscious parallels between their own struggles and the struggles of others. "As in 1789, these events of 1989 gained in recognition because they precipitated a confluence of several different types of social movement and the formation of transnational links of sympathy and mutual support" (Manning, par. 41). Decolonization, the self-determination of ethnic groups, and calls for democracy all coalesced. Almost simultaneously, "Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, South African withdrawal from its long occupation of Namibia, Vietnamese withdrawal of troops from Cambodia, and the agreement of the communist-led government in Poland to elections that would surely cause it to step down" all occurred, inspiring people across the globe — and particularly in Eastern Europe — to develop a revolutionary sensibility (Manning, par. 41).

1989 as a Year of Global Transformation

Hope and the real possibility of change were ignited in the hearts of millions. What had once seemed like insurmountable odds now appeared achievable: the Goliaths of communist power had been slain by Davids. The Soviet Union began to crumble, gradually shedding republics and former satellite states. South Africa was transformed by the end of apartheid. Saddam Hussein's invasion of neighboring Kuwait was swiftly defeated by the democratic military might of the United States. While the historical forces that gave rise to these events did not occur overnight — and it could be argued that these military withdrawals were long overdue — Manning stresses the importance of public perception regarding their occurrence and their fortuitous confluence.

Conclusion

Manning's belief in internationalism — that "in 1789, while communications were far slower and technology far more elementary than in 1989, patterns of inspiration, imitation, and mobilization were remarkable in the degree to which they anticipated the struggles that broke out two centuries later" — and his argument that there was an "alternation between local concerns and broad human identity" as "a recurring pattern in human affairs" ultimately do not fully withstand historical scrutiny. Some of his examples, such as the specific transmission of anti-slavery messages in 1789, can be traced from one region to another through their images and language. But his claim for a vaguer, more general sense of international "revolutionary spirit" is less convincing, particularly when one considers the very different rhetoric, experiences, and outcomes in China and Eastern Europe.

Manning, Patrick. "1789–1792 and 1989–1992: Global Interaction of Social Movements." World History Connected. May 12, 2010. http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/3.1/manning.html