African Americans in the American Revolution: Service and Freedom

Introduction: Why Blacks Fought in the American Revolution

The military participation of African Americans — both free and enslaved — during the American Revolution raises a compelling historical question: why did blacks serve in both the American and British forces, and how instrumental was their service? Black forces fought on both sides during the conflict, and their contributions to both armies were extremely important. A large number of blacks earned their freedom as a result of their fighting, and many more gave their lives in the name of freedom. Blacks did not single-handedly win the American Revolution, but their service was instrumental in many areas, including espionage and infiltration of the enemy.

Blacks fought on both sides during the American Revolution for a number of compelling reasons. Many hoped to gain their freedom through their commitment to their countries, while others felt the need to defend the idea of freedom even if they did not personally enjoy it. As historians Emma Nogrady Kaplan and Sidney Kaplan note, "Not all were patriots. As Benjamin Quarles points out in his study The Negro in the American Revolution, the role of the black soldier or sailor in the Revolutionary War 'can best be understood by realizing that his major loyalty was not to a place nor a people, but to a principle'" (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 3). The Kaplans elaborate:

"The black soldier or sailor was, in fact, eager to fight on two fronts — for his own freedom and for the freedom of his country. Therefore, when white governors or generals running short of manpower in the army and navy, or white masters chary of risking their necks on the battlefield, promised a slave his freedom if he joined the ranks, he was more than willing to shoulder a musket" (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 32).

Even after losing the war, Great Britain still offered blacks who had fought on her side their freedom. As a result, the Tory blacks who supported Great Britain actually came out ahead of many American blacks.

Lord Dunmore's Proclamation and British Recruitment

Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, granted indentured servants and enslaved blacks their freedom if they would join the Royal Army and fight the "traitorous" Americans. His proclamation states: "And I do hereby further declare all indentured servants, negroes or others, (appertaining to Rebels,) free that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's troops as soon as may be" (Dunmore 1775, 126–127). It is estimated that at least one thousand Virginia blacks escaped from their owners and accepted Dunmore's offer of freedom.

Dunmore had compelling strategic reasons for making this offer. His troops in Virginia numbered only about 300 due to "desertion and harassment," and he was desperate to find new forces to help defend English loyalists in Williamsburg and other communities (Editors 2005). He would take recruits wherever he could find them. Many Virginia slave owners found his actions controversial and frightening, fearing that Dunmore's appeal would spark a slave revolt. His plan worked — he recruited hundreds of black soldiers — but the Congress of Virginia denounced it and threatened escaped slaves with death. Most historians consider Dunmore's Proclamation the first large-scale emancipation of blacks in North America. It gave blacks a taste of freedom, and they only wanted more (Editors 2005).

Not all Americans shared Dunmore's views on blacks fighting during the war. Many northern newspapers and editorials deliberately avoided the issue of slavery throughout the conflict, and many historians believe this was calculated to present a united front against the British. Historian Patricia Bradley writes: "Resolved: by avoiding the issue of slavery, the propagandists of the American Revolution made a unified revolution possible, and allowed for the development of a movement that sought full rights for all" (Bradley 1998, 155). Unfortunately, both British and American leaders often went back on their promises of freedom for service. The editors of the "Black Loyalists" website note, "Of course, many on both sides ignored these policies and sought to profit from their situation when possible by taking the slaves away and selling them" (Editors 2005). Thus, many blacks who had fought for their freedom were eventually returned to their masters or sold into slavery once again.

American Ambivalence: Washington, Slavery, and Black Enlistment

While Lord Dunmore urged blacks to fight against the American revolutionaries, American leaders were far from unified on the question of black enlistment. George Washington's views shifted considerably during the war. Initially, he denied blacks enlistment in the Continental Army, even though his own favorite enslaved man, William Lee, accompanied him into battle. Author Benjamin Quarles notes, "In the early stages of the war American military and civilian authorities had adopted a policy of excluding Negroes, a policy based on the mistaken supposition that the war would be over quickly" (Quarles 1988, 55).

Later, Washington relented and urged blacks to join the ranks. Most historians agree he did so not out of a change of principle, but because — like the British — he was desperate for fighting men, and British ranks were filling with blacks willing to fight for their freedom. Washington's personal views on slavery, however, were more progressive than his initial military policy suggested. The Kaplans write, "Washington's soul-searching about the rightness of slavery is well-known. There was 'not a man living,' he wrote to two friends in 1786, who wished more sincerely than he 'to see some plan adopted by which slavery may be abolished by law'" (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 36). He ultimately liberated all of his slaves in his will, and William Lee gained his freedom before Washington's death, along with an annual stipend of $30 for life (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 36–37).

Historian Patricia Bradley's research further suggests that the deliberate silence on slavery in American revolutionary propaganda was a strategic choice that papered over a deep national contradiction — one that black soldiers lived every time they took up arms for a republic that denied their humanity.

The 1st Rhode Island Regiment and Black Combat Performance

Perhaps the most notable black regiment formed during the war was the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, which has become legendary in the history of black military service. Colonel Christopher Greene commanded the regiment, one of only three black regiments to fight during the war. Rhode Island was unable to fill its quota of fighting men for the Continental Army, which prompted the formation of the regiment. The Rhode Island Legislature declared that any black man who served would gain his freedom and receive the same wages as any other soldier (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 64). Washington personally assigned Colonel Greene to train and lead the new recruits.

The regiment proved itself in battle after battle. One of the first major engagements was the Battle of Rhode Island, where they faced both Hessian and British forces. They fought so bravely that the Hessian commander returned to New York and refused to fight the black regiment again (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 65). The unit fought throughout the entire war and distinguished itself repeatedly. The Kaplans record one particularly dramatic moment:

"In the attack made upon the American lines, near Croton river, on the 13th of May, 1781," wrote Nell, "Colonel Greene, the commander of the regiment, was cut down and mortally wounded: but the sabres of the enemy only reached him through the bodies of his faithful guard of blacks, who hovered over him to protect him, and every one of whom was killed" (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 65).

Many contemporaries wrote of the regiment's discipline, skill, and devotion to duty. The Kaplans conclude that "perhaps the war would have ended sooner if its example had been heeded" (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, 64). The regiment's record stands as powerful evidence that black soldiers were not merely auxiliary to the Revolutionary effort but were, in many instances, among its most reliable and courageous fighters.

Conclusion: Legacy of Black Service in the Revolution

Black fighting men and women contributed on both sides during the Revolutionary War. They proved their loyalty, longed for their freedom, and in many cases gave their lives in pursuit of recognition as equal citizens. Many distinguished themselves on the battlefield, as spies, and as leaders. They often made the difference between victory and defeat in key engagements, and many historians believe the war might have concluded sooner had more black troops been recruited and deployed. As the record of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment demonstrates, black soldiers were fully capable of fighting with the discipline and courage of any unit in either army.

Despite their service, most black soldiers — on both sides — did not gain lasting freedom. Yet the alliances and relationships forged during the war had long consequences. Men like Guy Carleton, General Lafayette, and George Washington worked in various ways to end slavery or to assist blacks after the war. The Revolution won independence, but not for all Americans. What it did demonstrate, unmistakably, was that black Americans were ready and willing to fight for a just cause. Many historians also argue that black service in the Revolutionary War ultimately helped pave the way toward the American Civil War and the eventual abolition of slavery — a legacy that extended far beyond the battlefields of 1775–1783.

References

Bradley, Patricia. 1998. Slavery, Propaganda, and the American Revolution. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.

Dunmore, Lord. 1775. Lord Dunmore's Appeal to the Slaves of Virginia (1775).

Editors. 2005. Black Loyalists: Our History, Our People. Government of Canada's Digital Collections. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/blackloyalists/story/our_story.htm

Kaplan, Sidney, and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. 1989. The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution. Revised ed. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.

Massey, George D. 2000. Slavery and Liberty in the American Revolution: John Laurens's Black Regiment Proposal. Early America.com. http://earlyamerica.com/review/2003_winter_spring/slavery_liberty.htm

Quarles, Benjamin. 1988. Black Mosaic: Essays in Afro-American History and Historiography. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.