Aggression and Behavior: Gender Differences Examined

Introduction

The primary focus of this study is an examination of aggression related to behavioral types, in order to determine the extent to which aggression relates to behavior. Three separate aggression analysis scales were used to survey undergraduate students to determine what behavior types and other aggression patterns could be distinguished between men and women.

In addition, a comprehensive literature review was developed that examined prior research conducted with regard to aggression and behavior. The results suggest that men are more likely to demonstrate aggression associated with behaviors related to their perceptions of self-esteem and peer pressure, and other behavioral dysfunctions or discomfort. Women are more likely to be the victims of aggression but will act out when provoked. These ideas are explored in greater detail below.

Literature Review: Aggression and Behavior Types

This study focuses on aggression and behavior types. A majority of the studies conducted in the past suggest that men are more likely than women to be aggressive, a fact supported by statistics indicating that men are more likely to commit aggressive crimes than women (Chilton & Jarvis, 1999). Other studies suggest that aggression patterns are correlated with behavioral patterns when children are very young (Stanton, Baldwin & Rachuba, 1997).

Behavioral types that are more likely to demonstrate aggression include those that researchers have labeled "dysfunctional," and may include poor self-esteem, high irritability, and overly stressed and anxious personality types (Chilton & Jarvis, 1999; Graham & Wells, 2001). The research available suggests that a number of factors may contribute to these behavioral tendencies, including socioeconomic factors, a student's reputation, and peer pressure inside and outside of a school or work environment (Bateman, 1998).

Graham & Wells (2001) cite a study conducted by Eagley & Steffen which shows that men are more likely than women to resort to physical aggression when provoked or influenced by other behaviors (p. 595). Other research further supports the notion that men are more likely to score higher than women on personality tests and measures that rank physical aggression (Graham & Wells, 2001).

Graham & Wells (2001) suggest that women tend to be less exposed to physical aggression and that women are more likely to experience aggression among other women. In addition, their research supports the notion that different life experiences between men and women result in behavioral differences and aggressive patterns in both sexes (Graham & Wells, 2001).

Interestingly, a large body of evidence also supports the notion that when either men or women are in a social setting, the chances for aggression increase exponentially, particularly when alcohol is involved, regardless of the person's behavioral type. Individuals who generally label themselves as more anxious or irritable are more likely to demonstrate outwardly aggressive tendencies than those who do not (Dodge, 1991).

A majority of the literature concerning aggression and behavior types has focused on gender differences and aggression patterns. There is a clear trend suggesting that males are more likely to demonstrate aggression than females. Behavioral types or factors more often associated with aggression in women include jealousy, though women who are not jealous are more likely to react aggressively when provoked.

Men, however, are more likely to demonstrate dysfunctional behaviors related to social acceptance and peer pressure that may contribute to their relatively high rates of aggression. In addition, males are more likely to demonstrate territorial and controlling behaviors, which may later be associated with more aggressive tendencies (Cairns & Stoff, 1996).

From a behavioral standpoint, aggression exhibited in males has been linked with behavioral patterns including a concern with honor and face-saving mechanisms, particularly in certain subcultures such as the southern United States (Graham & Wells, 2001, p. 595). In other studies, male aggression is considered a more "normative" behavior pattern and is generally regarded among males as more acceptable and pleasurable as an activity (Graham & Wells, 2001).

Behavioral Correlates to Aggression

The primary behavior associated with aggression in females suggested by studies is jealousy, though aggression in women has also been linked with previous aggression or misbehavior from another person that incites aggressive activity in the female aggressor (Graham & Wells, 2001). This behavioral trait may be linked to insecurities or peer pressure that causes females to feel the need to compete. Females are also more likely to demonstrate female-to-female aggression rather than aggressive tendencies toward a member of the opposite sex (Bateman et al., 1998).

Other studies suggest that among males, aggression can be related to behavioral correlates including reactive and proactive behavior (Bateman et al., 1998). Reactive aggression results from behaviors that are retaliatory in nature and are generally the result of a response to a perceived provocation or frustration; it may be demonstrated by either men or women (Bateman et al., 1998). Proactive aggression is generally aggression that occurs without provocation and is typically oriented toward accomplishing a specific goal, related to behaviors directed toward a position or "object acquisition" (Bateman et al., 1998; Dodge, 1991).

Studies do suggest that males with higher rates of behavioral problems generally exhibit more proactive aggressive acts and higher overall rates of aggression than those who do not have behavioral disturbances (Bateman et al., 1998). These behavioral problems may include a history of violent criminal activity or perceived troublemaking that generally begins at an early age or during the early school years and continues through adulthood (Price & Dodge, 1989).

Price & Dodge (1989) conducted a study suggesting that reactive aggression is more common among individuals who have suffered peer rejection or humiliation. Despite evidence generally indicating that men are more likely than women to demonstrate aggressive behaviors, relatively few studies have linked exact behavioral types to aggression. There is evidence to suggest, however, that whether male or female, individuals whose self-esteem has been damaged or influenced by peer attitudes are more likely to demonstrate aggressive tendencies, particularly during the early years (Dodge, 1991).

As evidenced by the literature review above, more studies have focused on the gender differences between men and women with regard to aggression. Both sexes were found to demonstrate more aggressive behavior when in a social setting and under the influence of alcohol, regardless of any pre-determined behavioral type, suggesting that alcohol and other environmental factors may play a role in aggression (Bateman, 1998).

Still other studies suggest that aggressive behaviors may be associated with natural or innate biological functions geared toward maintaining one's dominance within a social group, and may also include territorial defense (Cairns & Stoff, 1996). Aggressive patterns may also be associated with environmental factors including severe conditions resulting in physical harm or deprivation, sleep loss, illness, or injury (Cairns & Stoff, 1996). Furthermore, males are more likely to demonstrate social dominance behaviors or a need to dominate within a peer group than women, which may explain why a majority of studies have tended to associate aggression with male behavior patterns (Cairns & Stoff, 1996).

The literature also supports the notion that behavioral types may be pre-determined by one's environment and social support structure, with individuals living in harsher conditions or those affording less social support more likely to develop dysfunctional and destructive behavior patterns and subsequent aggression (Cairns & Stoff, 1996). This type of aggression is more often associated with frustration at one's inability to overcome environmental obstacles or to maintain a reasonable social standing within society (Cairns & Stoff, 1996).