This paper examines rape as a form of sexual deviance in contemporary society, analyzing the various theoretical frameworks used to explain its occurrence. The paper discusses two major offender classifications—impulsive and ritualistic offenders—and evaluates competing etiological theories including early biological perspectives, second-wave feminist theory, social learning, socio-biological explanations, and cognitive distortions. Using sociological imagination and structural functionalism, the paper applies conflict theory to illuminate how patriarchy, racial oppression, class systems, and symbolic interactionism shape rape culture. The analysis incorporates both criminological and scholarly research literature to argue that rape should be understood as a crime against humanity rather than a gender-specific offense, with attention to the often-overlooked issue of male victimization.
Rape is defined by the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) as "forced sexual intercourse including both psychological coercion as well as physical force. Forced sexual intercourse means vaginal, anal, or oral penetration by the offender." The occurrence of male-to-male rape is one of the least documented and discussed issues in contemporary society. Generally, victims of crime have largely been ignored in criminological research until the 1970s, as noted by Maguire and Pointing (1988). This can be attributed to the fact that research interest was focused primarily on the motivation of the perpetrator rather than the impact on the victim. Maguire and Pointing (1988) observed that "the victim was simply a source of information about the offending behavior, or a witness when the case was heard in court."
The introduction of victimology as a discipline has helped shed light on understanding what happens to victims of rape and other crimes. This field categorically points out that understanding any form of crime requires a process that does not fully concentrate on the offender but also examines the victim's situation at length. To understand what causes male-to-male rape, it is important to analyze both the role of the perpetrator and the contributions of the victim toward their own victimization. Fattah (1994) suggested that victimology's perspective reveals that it is possible to develop a dynamic model encompassing both the motives of the perpetrator and the attitudes of the victim.
According to Hazelwood and Warren (2000), there are generally two types of rape offenders:
These offenders are considered to be unsophisticated criminally and are largely reactive in terms of victim selection and behavior at the rape scene. They display diverse criminal histories with significant levels of physical violence coupled with generic sexual orientations.
This offender has diverse paraphilic interests with a pervasive, fantasy-based lifestyle. This type of offender exhibits crime scene behaviors characterized by a high level of planning and execution.
Early theories of rape explained it in terms of factors deemed "uncontrollable." These included internal factors such as uncontrollable sexual impulse, underdeveloped ego, and unresolved sexual childhood desires. External factors included blame placed on the victim's behavior, his mother, or his wife. This category of early theories is criticized for having very little empirical support and significant methodological problems.
Second-wave feminist theories viewed rape differently from earlier perspectives. They characterized rape as an actual act of violence. Brownmiller (1975) described rape as "nothing more or less than a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear." This group of theories also viewed rape as inherently heterosexual in nature, as depicted in the work of Catherine MacKinnon.
MacKinnon (2006) argued that there is an element of force in any heterosexual encounter. However, only in cases where this force exceeds the level considered by men as "normal" is the act referred to as rape. This perspective fundamentally reframes rape not as deviance but as an extreme point on a continuum of coercive sexuality normalized within patriarchal societies.
The social learning theorist's perspective posits that rape is acquired behavior. The behavior can be acquired through modeling, such as aping rape scenes from websites and films; linking sex with violence as depicted in pornography; beliefs in rape myths; and desensitization to rape as violence due to its prevalence on television and video games. Studies have indicated that there is a link between acceptance of rape myths and reported participation in rape.
The socio-cultural aspects of rape can be illustrated through the work of Scully (1990), who interviewed several convicted rapists and found they had no significant differences from other offenders. Mills (1940) pointed out the concept of "vocabulary of motive," a view shared by Scully (1990), who argued that an integral element of learning how to rape involves mastering the vocabulary that can be utilized to explain this form of sexual violence in a socially acceptable manner. In Scully's view, men who participated in rape considered it a low-risk act with high rewards. In fact, they considered rape an "act of normal deviance" (Scully, 1990).
The socio-biological causes of rape take into account evolutionary and cognitive dimensions. Research on evolutionary and genetic mechanisms of rape remains limited (Maletzky, 1996). Palmer and Thornhill (2000) postulate that some theories are ideologically supported rather than scientifically motivated. Rape should therefore be considered a sexual crime rooted in biological mechanisms.
"Applying Mills and functionalist theory to rape"
The functionalist view of society emphasizes the importance of sharing moral values and strong societal bonds for stability. When exposed to rapid social changes such as urbanization and industrialization, certain moral values tend to erode, leaving individuals uncertain about the best ways to react. Rapid social changes may erode the various traditional functions of society and its related institutions such as schools, family, and religion, making these institutions less effective in creating shared moral standards. This view can be applied to explain high rates of rape in areas experiencing elevated levels of divorce, high rates of tourism, and high rates of geographical mobility (Baron and Straus, 1989). The recommended approach is fostering high levels of moral values through religion, education, and family, while ensuring the criminal justice system is harsh and swift in preventing offenders from committing rape. A key criticism of this theoretical framework is that shared values and beliefs do not benefit everyone equally.
The feminist perspective on various forms of violence perpetrated against women suggests strongly that such acts reinforce patriarchy. This is portrayed in the unequal bargaining power that exists in sexual encounters in increasingly patriarchal societies. As traditional male privilege has faded through time, violence has been used to ensure women are put "in their place," as indicated by Sheffield (1987). The resulting fear of violence has forced women to modify their way of living, as they are deprived of certain fundamental freedoms.
Slavery has been noted as a key factor in the occurrence of rape cases. African American women were exposed to institutionalized rape, while African American men who raped white women were lynched. Historical accounts reveal that most of the rapists executed in America were African Americans, despite the fact that more Black American women experienced rape but did not report it (LaFree, 1989). This disparity illustrates how racism intersects with sexual violence to create distinct patterns of victimization and accountability.
The issues of racism and sexism in the societal system were reinforced by the dominant class system, which resulted in greater benefits for the rich and powerful. Laws governing rape have historically been biased toward class interests, resulting in protection of rapists and oppression of their victims. The upper class sought protection from law to preserve their status, as assaults on their wives and children eroded their social standing. In societies where women are regarded as the property of men, rape of women has not been given much concern by existing legislative systems (Davis, 1981). The criticism of this outlook is that it pays no attention to shared values and social stability.
Social learning theory postulates that rape is learned behavior. All discussions regarding physical abuse of women must include a strong element of societal beliefs regarding gender at the macro level. In patriarchal societies, men are taught to be aggressive to exude dominance, whereas women are encouraged to be passive and dependent on men. These beliefs are reinforced by mainstream media, which portrays sexual violence as a sign of masculinity. Symbolic interactionism shows how these gendered meanings are constructed and perpetuated through social interaction. This outlook has been criticized for focusing mainly on the micro level while ignoring broader macro issues involved.
Although most cases of rape have been perpetrated by men against women, there is a silent form of rape perpetrated against men by women (Reich, 2001). Rape scholars have shown reluctance in discussing female-on-male rape, perhaps based on the belief that no man can be raped by a woman or that "rape comes from the culture of masculinity" (Funk, 1993). The answer to this silence and misconception may lie in the fact that male rape victims usually feel like outcasts, as rape has been painted as a sign of lacking masculinity; admitting such victimization would render them appear effeminate in the eyes of society.
Rape should be considered a crime against humanity and should never be treated as a gender-specific crime. All men, women, and children must be respected equally by our laws and societal norms. Rape should therefore be shunned, and perpetrators should be dealt with to the fullest extent of the law regardless of their gender.
You’re 84% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 1 section.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.