Ancient Building Projects: From Mesopotamia to Roman Antiquity

Introduction: Building History from Civilization's Dawn

The twenty building projects discussed below represent the project activities of the periods examined and provide supporting examples for the historical evidence. They represent the application of areas of expertise to project activities from the dawn of civilization to classical antiquity. Undoubtedly, building construction is a dynamic field for historical research. Much can be learned about social organization, management skills, technology, and aesthetics through investigating the various forms and histories of important buildings. Starting with the great ziggurat monuments in Mesopotamia, the human desire to build large-scale structures is a historical constant. It is also deeply linked to the cultural and religious consciousness that sought expression through the construction of these buildings — an aspect clearly evident in many ancient civilizations.

In terms of labor, massive amounts of muscle and toil went into creating great brick and stone buildings that still stand today. The pyramids were built without the aid of cranes or train transportation, while later domes were erected without scaffolding using new hoisting mechanisms. In Ancient Greece, cranes replaced the use of ramps; in Roman times, various forms of construction machinery had been developed. It therefore becomes evident that the history of project activities reflects something important about society and its methods of management. Organization and management in the building and construction process is clearly evident in the advance of knowledge and expertise — for example, in the construction of the Roman Colosseum, where a rotational method of circulating labor was used to build the enormous structure.

Technology and materials also advanced over the centuries. From mud-brick to stone, from simple post-and-beam to sophisticated arches and dome construction, the "what and how" of building in terms of materials and engineering expertise changed in often dramatic ways. Engineering feats such as the dome of the Roman Pantheon inspired later cultures and civilizations. The Romans perfected the cement arch, while the Greeks refined the marble column. All these changes were made possible by developments in materials; however, perhaps most importantly, technical changes in construction techniques and tools shaped the field of building construction fundamentally. One could refer, for example, to the construction of aqueducts and waterways. In this regard, one should continually bear in mind the significance of cultural forces and perceptions that often act in concert with the more materialistic aspects of building and architecture — a factor prominent in both earlier and later building development, albeit with differences in intensity and emphasis depending on the culture and its needs. One could mention the importance of the gods in the Greek Parthenon, for instance.

This paper explores many of these factors and variables, as well as the changes that occurred, by means of a summary investigation into the construction history of these twenty important buildings.

Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt: Ziggurats, Pyramids, and Temples

The building projects we encounter from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt are a reflection not only of the cultural development and complexity of each civilization but also provide unique insight into advances in the process and skill of building, as well as architecture and design. This in turn is linked to other factors, such as cultural milieu, which can be seen as a reflection of the scientific and economic character of that civilization.

With the above in mind, the history of construction from the Ur Ziggurat to the Temple of Edfu demonstrates a number of important aspects. The Ur Ziggurat stands seventy feet high and is considered the best extant example of the Mesopotamian tower-shrines. The general consensus is that this structure was built during the reign of Ur-Nammu (2114–2096 BC). This formally and methodically built construction is evidence of the order and hierarchy of the society. It is evident from the structure that workers were controlled and monitored by the king. The Great Ziggurat was built in a series of stages, as shown by platforms that provided the working framework for each subsequent stage of construction (Foster & Foster, 62). This also suggests the stratification and division of the culture — discernible from the fact that the initiation of and payment for construction were arranged by kings or political leaders, while the labor force came from slaves and agrarian peasants. It is also a clear indication of the master builder tradition that was to strengthen and diversify in Egyptian culture, as well as being a sign of the economic development of civilization from its hunter-gatherer roots to a more stable, city-centered agrarian society.

The Tower of Babel, referred to in Genesis 11, has been linked to the Etemenanki, or the ziggurat of the temple of Marduk in Babylon (Foster & Foster, 64). This construction is particularly interesting in that it demonstrates what can occur when there is a breakdown in communication and management in the construction process — which also leads to conjecture about the diversity of the society. This possibly occurred when foreign slaves were imported for work, causing project managers difficulty in communicating with workers who did not understand Babylonian, resulting in confusion. It is certain that vast workshops were set up on construction sites, perhaps best exemplified at the Great Pyramid at Giza, where craftsmen worked in ways not previously seen at earlier Mesopotamian building sites.

Built during Nebuchadnezzar's reign, the Ishtar Gate is one of the most spectacular archaeological finds from Ancient Babylonia. It was the eighth gate leading to the inner city of Babylon, devoted to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar. Its outstanding decorative design — blue glazed tiles with alternating rows of bas-relief dragons and wild cattle — suggests the rich cultural and architectural heritage of the civilization. Culturally, it also had a symbolic purpose: the lion motif represented the goddess Ishtar.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (600 BC), situated in Nineveh, reveal many fundamental aspects of Mesopotamian building structure — including evidence of building expertise in the characteristic thick lower walls, foundations, and vaulted chambers that acted as support. The Hanging Gardens reveal the relatively advanced state of the culture and science, while also reminding us of the class differences of the society. They were built by the labor of peasants and slaves.

One of the epitomes of the building expertise of early civilizations can be seen in the Great Pyramid at Giza (2580–2560 BC). Much has been written about the macrostructure of the Giza pyramid, which has thirty-four major blocks. While we do not have definitive knowledge about the building process involved, we do know that intensive labor was used to quarry the stones, and dolerite hammers allowed the splitting of rocks, while copper saws were used to cut them. These aspects point to the growing technical and scientific knowledge of the builders and their relatively high level of civilization — a conclusion also supported by the use of ramps, levers, and pulleys in the pyramid's construction.

One should not forget that this structure, like so many buildings in ancient cultures, had a definite and complex cultural significance that reveals much about the society — especially the importance of the religious context of the pyramids. The Giza Pyramid in particular was meant to symbolize the Pharaoh's tomb and his departure from this world. This is allied to the scientific and astronomical knowledge of the Egyptians, which can be deduced from the design of the pyramid; for example, the shafts in the tomb were aligned with the three stars of Orion's Belt.

The Temple Complex of Karnak (1370 BC) is particularly interesting as it was comprised of a number of temples. Situated near Luxor, some 500 km south of Cairo, the area around Karnak was the main site of worship and a division of the colossal city of Thebes. It is the largest temple complex ever constructed by man and, as such, is evidence of the knowledge and expertise of many generations of builders.

The Luxor Temple (1400 BC) was also a vast Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River, devoted to the triad of Theban gods: Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Its construction took many generations to complete and shows not only the building and scientific skills of the culture but also bears witness to its cultural and religious life. The striking statue of Ramesses II that features prominently reflects the power of the Egyptian ruler as well as his divine status in the culture.

The Abu Simbel Temples (1244–1224 BC) consist of two large rock temples in Nubia, in southern Egypt on the western bank of Lake Nasser. They were constructed — or rather carved — as a tribute to Pharaoh Ramesses II and his queen Nefertari. The Temple of Edfu (237–57 BC) also demonstrates the expertise and cultural depth of Egyptian civilization. Situated on the west bank of the Nile in the city of Edfu, it is the second largest temple in Egypt after Karnak. The religious foundations of the culture are clearly evident in aspects of its construction; for example, the decorations on the walls of the temple to the god Horus provide a vast array of scientific and mythological knowledge. This temple has also provided archaeologists and Egyptologists with knowledge about the culture and its advances in fields such as mathematics and astronomy.

Ancient Greece to Rome: Parthenon, Colosseum, and Pantheon

The history of construction from the Greek Parthenon to the Roman Pantheon demonstrates a number of important aspects. In terms of working methods, most building during this period shows that the initiation of and payment for construction were arranged by kings or political leaders, while the labor force came from slaves and agrarian peasants. Vast workshops were set up on construction sites, perhaps best exemplified at the acropolis of the Parthenon and at the Colosseum. In Roman times, construction was carried out under the orders of the emperor, and skilled labor came primarily from the military, although slaves were used as well. In the Colosseum, a particular method of circulating labor was employed in separate groups, enabling the simultaneous construction of various areas of the building.

In terms of materials and technological processes, in Roman times one sees the invention of timber formwork and scaffolding for building vaults upward, which replaced ramps. The Parthenon replicates the quarrying and transportation seen earlier, but in this case uses marble and granite columns. Mortar was used for the earliest buildings, but the Greek temple and Roman aqueducts use no mortar, relying instead on weight and stone placement in arches and columns for cohesion, or on iron cramps and dowels as at the Colosseum. Roman buildings are significant for the use of pulleys and hoists in construction and for innovative techniques for spanning valleys using bridges on piers. The Romans pioneered the use of concrete and the construction of supporting tiers of arches to counteract wind. These techniques received their greatest expression in the Roman Colosseum. Another advance was in building across water, as demonstrated by the Rhine Bridge. A final notable development occurred with the Pantheon's dome construction, where material was graded to be lighter as the building went upward, and timberwork was used to pour successive rings of concrete into ribs.

In terms of architectural design, Greek building made heavy use of columns to support roof superstructures, the frieze, and the pediment. Rome added the vaulted dome and various forms of arches to the architectural palette. Decoratively, the Tower of Babel was painted, while the Parthenon was intricately carved and utilized entasis — a subtle swelling in the columns — to improve their visual appearance. The Greeks and Romans used more decorative materials than earlier civilizations, including bronze and marble.

From a cultural perspective, the Parthenon (490–432 BC) was the dwelling place of the gods as well as of the society's rulers, representing vital aspects of the values that sustained the culture. In a more material sense, the building itself was constructed from quarried marble, marble roof tiles, and cypress timbers. From Plutarch we learn that a wide range of expertise was drawn upon for its creation, including the skills of moulders, masons, bronze casters, goldsmiths, and dyers — an indication of the sophistication and specialization of building science that had occurred in this culture. A wide variety of materials were used in its construction, including ivory, marble, gold, bronze, cypress wood, and ebony. Two particularly influential aspects were the use of entasis and the pediments, which distinguished this building from other temples.

Many of these technological, design, and cultural aspects can also be seen in the best-preserved Greek temple: the Temple of Hephaestus. It is a Doric peripteral temple designed by Ictinus, who also worked on the Parthenon. Constructed in marble, it has six columns under the pedimented ends and thirteen columns on each side. The peripteral design, with columns entirely surrounding the central enclosed space, is a tribute to Greek aesthetic sensibility and an indication of the cultural and architectural advancement of this society. The quality and vision that went into the design of these buildings helps explain why Ancient Greek culture is still considered the fountain from which modern European culture originated.

In this regard, one could also refer to the Temple of Erechtheum (421–407 BC), devoted to the Greek hero Erichthonius, and the Lighthouse at Alexandria (280–247 BC). The Erechtheum presents other aspects of the culture, including the military need that required its construction for protective purposes. Also constructed of marble with exquisitely executed relief work and statues, it attests to the aesthetic and artistic qualities of Greek culture through its elaborate ornamentation.

The Great Lighthouse at Alexandria is known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Constructed from very large blocks of light-colored stone, the tower was made up of three sections: a lower square part with a central nucleus, a middle octagonal part, and a circular part at the top. Its construction was complex and required advanced technology and building expertise — for example, the interior of the tower housed a large spiral ramp.

Roman culture was perhaps more structured and hierarchically organized, with greater emphasis on extended control and management practices than the Greeks, and this is evident in many of their buildings. The Library of Celsus (117–135 AD) in Ephesus, Asia Minor, was constructed to honor Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus. The library was extensive, built to store more than twelve thousand scrolls, and also served as a tomb for Celsus. Attention to detail and the use of marble made it an impressive structure.

Roads to facilitate trade and commerce were an important aspect of Roman society and its growing economy. One of the first important roads to be built was the Appian Way (312 BC), which linked Rome to Brindisi, Apulia, in southeast Italy. It was difficult to construct and demonstrated the ability and technical knowledge of Roman engineers, who made ingenious use of natural formations in their design of the roadway.

Another facet of Roman culture was the engineering that facilitated the flow of water in urban areas. The Aqueduct Pont du Gard (15 BC–14 AD) was built to supply bath water to various towns. The technical knowledge acquired from building these aqueducts and waterways led to larger Roman constructions. "It was the combination of gravity flow and the open channel that led to monumental architecture, in the form of bridges and arcades" (Hodge, 132). In this regard one could also mention the Aqueduct of Segovia, which carried water for eighteen kilometres.

The Roman Colosseum (70–82 AD) was an amphitheater constructed from concrete and stone blocks. Slaves were most likely used to transport materials, and various craftsmen were employed in its construction. The extensive development of the master builder tradition is evident in the fact that numerous guilds of building specialists were consulted in the building process — which again attests to the relatively advanced level of technical knowledge and expertise in Roman society. Managerially, there would also have been a strict and orderly process in the supervision of construction. Cranes and other machines were also used to facilitate a rapid building process.

In terms of cultural influence, Roman buildings and architecture were often shaped by religious perceptions and ideals. An example of this is the Pantheon (118–126 AD), which has been described as an exceptional engineering feat for several reasons. One of these is the design of the large dome as well as the open spaces built to accommodate religious services. The vaulted concrete dome is the largest ever constructed, and considerable planning and engineering knowledge were required for its execution. It inspired later constructions such as St. Peter's Basilica and the Florence Baptistery. Among the many aspects that have been lauded about this construction is the combination of a domed cylinder — which lacks a peristyle — with a monumental temple front.