Arab Spring Uprisings: Causes, Outcomes, and Comparisons

Introduction: The Arab World on the Brink

Uprisings are a part of history. From the Greeks against the Persians to Americans against the British, revolutions are won and lost just as quickly as they begin. The Arab Spring region experienced several revolutions in 2010–2011. Some were somewhat successful — Tunisia and Yemen — while others were not, most notably Egypt and Syria. What is clear about the Arab Spring uprisings is that many people needed things to change and were willing to sacrifice everything, including their very lives, to see that change realized.

The Arab revolts became a major source of international news in 2011. What sparked the tragic and turbulent series of events began in 2010 with the self-immolation of a young fruit vendor named Mohamed Bouazizi. This singular act sparked a series of unparalleled demonstrations and protests in Tunisia. The success of those protests led to another wave of unrest in Egypt, spreading to Algeria, Jordan, Yemen, and other nations throughout the region.

Common Causes of the Arab Spring

While causes varied from nation to nation, common and recurring themes emerged across the region. These included:

• A lack of democracy
• Widespread corruption
• Human rights violations
• Extreme poverty
• Economic decline and unemployment
• Rising food prices
• A large population of educated but dissatisfied young people

These causes led some protesters to attempt to displace regimes outright, while others demanded improved living conditions without challenging the fundamental structure of government. The ruling elites of the various countries responded differently. Some introduced top-down reform, attempting to "buy" social peace. Others took a more aggressive stance and resorted to armed repression.

It is no surprise that when an economy declines and jobs disappear, people suffer. The populace suffers especially when the government is dishonest and permits corruption within its ranks. Add to that a growing number of young people achieving higher levels of education with nowhere to apply their skills, and the result is a population that has reached its limit. As countries protested and made some progress, a domino effect emerged that drew more nations into mass demonstrations.

Overview of Outcomes Across the Region

Armed violence and ineffective reform created additional havoc throughout the Middle East. By August 2012, four governments had been overthrown: those of Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, and Yemen. Presidents fled or were removed from power. President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia, and Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi — who was killed on October 20, 2011 — all lost power. In Yemen, the president resigned, and President Abd Rabbuh Mansur al-Hadi assumed the position in February 2012.

While the demonstrations prompted some changes, nations like Syria saw little progress and instead descended into a continuous and violent civil war between opposition forces and Assad loyalists. In Bahrain, protests aimed at achieving greater equality and political freedom for the Shia majority were crushed by a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) intervention led by Saudi Arabia. Beginning in January 2011, Saudi Arabia itself saw similar protests, and other Gulf states experienced demonstrations as well. Jordan, due to sustained protests, underwent three cabinet changes.

The Arab Spring uprisings thus gained the label of "revolutions." Revolutions may be defined as subordinate groups attempting to transform the social foundations of political power. However, demonstrations in some countries did not seek to transform those foundations at all. It is therefore unclear whether all of the uprisings can properly be called revolutions. What is clear is that the revolts were driven by people who were exhausted by growing injustices and determined to improve their lives.

In the end, people simply wanted to be treated equally — to have a chance at a life where they could work and provide for their families. When that possibility was stripped from them and replaced with poverty and suffering, protest became inevitable. The Arab uprisings illustrate how a population can reach a breaking point, resulting in a fight for survival and equality.

Tunisia vs. Egypt: Why Outcomes Diverged

Different outcomes emerged for different countries. Tunisia and Egypt offer a striking contrast. Tunisia experienced positive results, with the country undergoing meaningful change for the better. As one report noted, "In Tunisia, an elected assembly has produced the most liberal political ground-rules in the Arab world. In the words of the outgoing premier, Ali Larayedh, the document sets the seal on a 'democratic, made-in-Tunisia transition'" (The Guardian). In Egypt, by contrast, people continued boycotts against a backdrop of ongoing violence. Both countries have Sunni Muslim majorities, limited oil reserves, and a history of secular government — yet their outcomes diverged sharply.

It is also notable that Tunisia was the first country where the revolts began, with seven other self-immolation attempts recorded before or after Bouazizi's act. The Tunisian uprising had a powerful and immediate effect on Egyptians and helped ignite protests in Cairo on January 25, 2011.

Both countries shared similar grievances: unequal incomes, high food prices, aging authoritarian leaders, and high youth unemployment. Where Tunisia succeeded, the difference lay in the character of the Islamist movements that won the first free elections in each nation — "Ennahda in Tunisia, and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt" (The Guardian). The Muslim Brotherhood made several critical mistakes upon taking power. They drafted a constitution that left many revolutionaries deeply dissatisfied. "Fearing theocracy, some appealed to the military, whose head, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, duly ordered the arrest of the first freely elected president, and killed the revolution" (The Guardian).

Unlike Tunisia, which had a small army, Egypt's military functioned almost as a quasi-commercial enterprise with business dealings spanning cars, cement, fertilizer factories, resorts, hospitals, and road construction. Employing nearly 900,000 soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians, the Egyptian military effectively ran the country. After the coup, one poll found that over seventy percent of Egyptians retained confidence in the army. Compounding the military's dominance was Egypt's low level of urbanization.

Tunisia is significantly more urbanized than Egypt and wealthier overall, despite having far less land area. "Tunisians, on average, are wealthier … almost twice as high as Egyptians, and at the time of the uprising the World Bank classified more than 80% of the population as 'middle class.' In Egypt, about 40% of the population lived on less than two dollars a day" (Gelvin 39). With neoliberalism and privatization generating a new social class in Egypt — nicknamed "fat cats" or "whales of the Nile" — wealth became highly concentrated while poverty deepened for the majority. This economic divide substantially shaped how the revolts would conclude.

In essence, citizens held more power in Tunisia and therefore had greater influence over how the country would be governed. In Egypt, by contrast, the population faced a large, entrenched military capable of suppressing any attempts at change that did not serve its interests. Many Egyptians also lacked the financial resources that Tunisians possessed, with large segments living on just a few dollars a day. Money is a means of acquiring and expressing power. Finally, Tunisia's status as the first country to rise gave its people a sense of urgency and leadership that proved consequential for neighboring nations.

Conclusion: Lessons from the Arab Spring

Certain factors led to the uprisings, many of which were driven by educated youth who were unemployed and faced with harsh economies and corrupt governments. They felt the need to act — to try to change what was unfair and unjust. Yemen saw some minor success but soon descended into renewed chaos. Egypt, with its dominant military, experienced almost no real political change. Tunisia stands as the first and perhaps only country to achieve genuinely positive outcomes from the revolts.

What began with a single act of self-immolation produced a domino effect in which country after country saw its people take to the streets, demanding better lives for themselves and their families. The nations that experienced the most intense upheaval shared several characteristics: they were oil-poor and lacked hereditary monarchies. Their governments could neither pacify the population with financial incentives nor resolve tensions through royal decree alone. Syria came close to a rebel victory, but Iranian intervention prevented it and produced a lasting deadlock instead.

Ultimately, the Arab Spring demonstrates that political and economic exclusion, when sustained over time, can overwhelm even well-established authoritarian systems. The outcomes also show that external forces — foreign armies, allied governments, and geopolitical interests — play a decisive role in determining whether popular uprisings succeed or fail.

References

Gelvin, James L. The Arab Uprisings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.

The Guardian. "The Arab Spring: Made in Tunisia, Broken in Egypt." The Guardian. N.p., 2014. Web. 10 May 2016.

Williamson, Scott, and Caroline Abadeer. "Protest, Uprising & Regime Change in the Arab Spring." Muftah. N.p., 2014. Web. 10 May 2016.