Birth Control in Ancient Greece and Rome: Methods and History

Introduction to Birth Control and Family Planning

Birth control, also known as fertility control and contraception, describes the devices or methods used to prevent an egg from being fertilized by sperm, thereby preventing pregnancy. Provision of birth control and the planning of pregnancies is referred to as family planning. Safe sex through the use of condoms — both male and female — not only prevents unwanted pregnancies but also prevents the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. In the contemporary world, the use of contraceptives has increased in developing countries, and the number of maternal deaths has consequently decreased by about 44%. However, this figure could be reduced by 73% if the demand for birth control were met completely.

Teenage pregnancies tend to result in complications including low birth weight, preterm birth, and infant mortality. Many health specialists therefore believe that adolescents should receive comprehensive sex education, including instruction on methods of contraception. When the interval between two pregnancies is increased, the delivery outcomes for adult women as well as the survival of newborn children can be improved through birth control.

Even though birth control methods have been in use since ancient times, effective and safe methods of contraception were only developed during the 20th century. Many cultures and groups of people around the world believe that birth control is not morally acceptable, and as a result, most people in those societies do not have access to contraceptive methods. According to statistics, approximately 222 million women in developing countries do not wish to conceive but are not using any modern contraception. It has been established that birth control contributes to improved economic growth: with fewer children, there are fewer dependents, giving women the opportunity to participate in the workforce. Women who have access to improved contraceptive methods show substantial improvements in body mass index, as do their children, along with better schooling outcomes for the children and increased earnings and assets for the women themselves.

This paper discusses the methods of birth control used by people of ancient Greece and Rome and examines their effectiveness.

Birth Control in Ancient Times

A central question is whether birth control was permitted for ancient women of Greece and Rome, and whether these women sought abortions once they had conceived. The answer is yes — these women had access to contraceptive methods and could control the births of multiple children. It should be noted that most of the books written about gynecology date from around 98 CE. Other writings are attributed to Hippocrates, who composed the Hippocratic writings between approximately 430 and 330 BCE. Additionally, Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica around 30–40 CE. All of these writers described various methods of abortion and birth control. The contraceptive methods adopted by the Roman Empire during the apostolic age were ones that had been practiced in Egypt since approximately 1900 BCE.

Further evidence that birth control was a common practice comes from the Greek botanist Theophrastus, who conducted extensive research on the plant silphium. This plant is sometimes referred to as a "wonder drug" because of its excellent abortive qualities. Some anecdotal evidence is also provided by Catullus, a Roman poet who referenced silphium in his writings by saying he could enjoy as many kisses with his girlfriend as there were grains of silphium on the shores of Cyrene.

Additional evidence that herbs were used by women of ancient Greece and Rome as contraceptives appears in the comedy by Aristophanes, The Peace, in which Hermes gives Trigaius a female companion. When Trigaius becomes afraid that the woman might conceive, Hermes advises him to add a specific amount of pennyroyal to prevent conception. Pomegranate is also identified as a contraceptive agent in the Greek myth of Hades and Persephone.

A teacher at the Yale New Haven Teachers Institute has summarized this context well: even in ancient times, people sought to control the sizes of their families. Men as well as women wanted to ensure they had a limited number of children so that it would be easier to meet their social, economic, emotional, and physical demands. This is why these people sought methods of contraception and succeeded to some extent.

Most of the methods adopted were botanical in nature. Physical methods of abortion left very little evidence. Soranus writes that vigorous exercise during pregnancy and carrying heavy weights could lead to abortion. He also suggested that leaping violently could cause abortion. Some ancient women were reportedly shaken by animals in order to induce abortion. Other recommendations from Soranus include the injection of warm, sweet olive oil into the uterus of pregnant women.

Herbal and Botanical Methods in Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was a thoroughly male-dominated society, and male dominance extended even to childbirth. According to ancient Greek medicine, men were considered to be the sources of health and sanity for women, and were thought to correct biological deficiency in women through sexual intercourse. It was believed that menstrual blood collected around the heart and was washed away through intercourse. Men were also given full credit for conception, as the uterus was regarded merely as a receptacle for male sperm. Abortion was permitted under Greek law, though it was not allowed under the Hippocratic Oath. Infanticide — particularly of female newborns — was also a common practice.

In ancient Greece, many women used methods of birth control without significant interference from political or religious authorities. Midwives and herbalists possessed considerable knowledge of plants and herbs that could prevent conception or induce abortion. One of the most common and widely used contraceptive agents was silphium. It grew only in the region of Cyrene, located in North Africa. Cyrene began exporting this plant, and because the city was its exclusive exporter, silphium was engraved on the city's coins — it was the primary source of revenue for the city from the first century BCE onward.

Silphium was not the only plant used as a method of birth control or to induce abortions. Other plants included myrrh, Artemisia, rue, and pennyroyal. As noted above, because silphium could only be grown in a specific region, its price increased significantly alongside its demand. By the end of the first century BCE, the plant's price exceeded its weight in silver. By the end of the second century CE, high demand had driven it to extinction. At that point, another herb known as asafetida began to be used for contraception, as it shared the same properties as silphium.

Many ancient Greek documents survive that discuss the use of these plants. Since most of these plants also have toxic properties, specific dosages are mentioned in the documents. Recent studies have confirmed that these plants do possess contraceptive properties. One such herb, known as Queen Anne's lace, has post-coital anti-fertility properties and can be used for birth control. Some studies have also suggested that this plant is still being used in India as a contraceptive method.

Soranus, a Greek gynecologist, believed that only women who were physically capable of bearing a child should resort to birth control methods. He also held that prevention of conception was preferable to terminating a pregnancy. He described various methods of contraception in his writings, the most striking of which was his suggestion that a woman should jump backward seven times after sexual intercourse.

Conclusion

It can rightly be said that women of ancient Greece and Rome did have access to birth control methods, which were semi-reliable compared to those available today. It has also been established that these women were largely free from political or religious interference regarding contraception. Although most research on ancient birth control methods focuses on Greece and Rome, Egypt and Jewish communities are also known to have worked on contraceptive technologies. The fundamental properties of the herbs and plants used as contraceptives in antiquity underpin contemporary formulations, which have been further refined to increase their effectiveness and duration. Given the extensive research that Greece and Rome conducted on contraceptive methods, this remains a subject with rich potential for continued scholarly inquiry.

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