The Black Death: Origins, Impact, and Transformation of Medieval Europe

Origins and Spread of the Black Death

The Middle Ages witnessed transformative and devastating events that shaped European society for centuries. During this period, China had developed an exciting trading process, with ships from around the world stopping at Chinese ports to exchange goods. The prospect of acquiring items from distant lands fascinated merchants and traders. However, this interconnected trade network would unwittingly become the vector for one of history's most catastrophic pandemics.

In October 1347, trading ships docked at the Sicilian port of Messina after a long journey through the Black Sea. Eager greeters awaited to see what exotic goods had been brought back from the voyage, but they were met with a life-changing discovery. The majority of the sailors were dead, and those who remained alive were rapidly approaching death. Unknown to the crew, the source of the crisis was flea-infested rats that had traveled aboard the vessels. The Black Death had arrived in Europe.

According to historians, the Black Death originated as an outbreak of plague in central Asia. Records indicate that the disease reached the Black Sea port of Caffa (now Feodosiya, Ukraine) by 1347. From there, it spread swiftly along seafaring and overland trade routes to western Asia, North Africa, and southern Europe. The plague struck Messina, Sicily in 1347, and soon cities surrounding the Mediterranean Sea experienced outbreaks with enormous death tolls. The disease spread farther into Europe, striking London in 1348 and Scandinavia and Russia soon after. Over the following centuries, repeated outbreaks struck throughout Europe.

As one of the most serious pandemics in recorded history, the Black Death took the lives of roughly 75 million people and left a permanent impact on society. The plague reached the shores of Italy in the spring of 1348, unleashing a rampage of death across Europe unprecedented in recorded history. By the time the epidemic subsided three years later, anywhere between 25 percent and 50 percent of Europe's population had fallen victim to the pestilence.

Medical Understanding and Treatment

Physicians at the time did not understand the cause of the disease. The actual cause of the plague was sourced within rodents in general, but a provocation for spreading the disease rapidly came from fleas that fed on black rats and prairie dogs, and then on humans. When there was a decline in the hosts, the fleas would feed on humans in desperation. The organism's specific name is Yersinia pestis, and soon after contact with its victims, dark circles would manifest all over the human body as a result of damaged skin tissues.

The Black Death presented itself in three interrelated forms. The bubonic variant, the most common form, derives its name from the swellings or buboes that appeared on a victim's neck, armpits, or groin. These tumors could range in size from that of an egg to that of an apple. Although some survived the painful ordeal, the manifestation of these lesions usually signaled the victim had a life expectancy of up to a week. Infected fleas that attached themselves to rats and then to humans spread this bubonic type of plague.

A second variation was pneumonic plague, which attacked the respiratory system and was spread by merely breathing the exhaled air of a victim. It was much more virulent than its bubonic cousin—life expectancy was measured in one or two days. Finally, the septicemic version of the disease attacked the blood system. The technical term for the hemorrhagic effects was Subural Hemorrhages, and this variant was particularly violent, suffocating its victims.

The Black Death victims in the Middle Ages were terrified of the deadly disease. The plague held a massive mortality rate between 30 and 40 percent. Victims had no idea what had caused the disease, and neither did the physicians. The most that could be done was to administer various concoctions of herbs to relieve symptoms—there was no known cure. Headaches were treated with rose, lavender, sage, and bay. Sickness or nausea was treated with wormwood, mint, and balm. Lung problems were treated with licorice and comfrey. Vinegar was used as a cleansing agent, as it was believed to kill disease. Bloodletting was commonly thought to be one of the best ways to treat the plague, despite its ineffectiveness. Having no defense and no understanding of the cause of the pestilence, the men, women, and children caught in its onslaught were bewildered, panicked, and finally devastated.