Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory and Lifelong Learning

Overview of Cognitive Science and Lifelong Learning

One of the key changes of the late 20th century, certainly enhanced in the early 21st, is the manner in which cognitive science has become ever more important within the paradigm of education — particularly education throughout the life cycle. Contemporary society understands more and more that learning does not begin in preschool and end with either the high school or college graduation ceremony. Instead, cognitive learning is a lifelong experience that needs to be nurtured.

Cognitive science is a multidisciplinary field, comprising cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics, neuroscience, and anthropology. In recent years, cognitive science has become a predominant paradigm in studies of the mind. It incorporates concepts and methods from philosophy and cognitive psychology, whereas behaviorism dominated the psychological sciences during the first part of the twentieth century. Cognitive scientists are interested in the mental structures and processes of the mind. Several individuals have attempted more rigorous definitions of the field. A computational view emphasizes that cognitive science, sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly, tries to elucidate the workings of the mind by treating them as computations — not necessarily of the sort carried out by the digital computer, but of a sort that lies within a broader theory of computation (Johnson-Laird, 2009). One of the more interesting contemporary theorists in the nature of development, and one whose work relates to a more ecological approach that fits well within the idea of lifelong learning, was Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) ("Urie Bronfenbrenner," 2005).

One can think of Bronfenbrenner as a sociological Stephen Hawking — explaining the very minute and how it works with the very large. Hawking, of course, deals with the way small quantum data interact with the environment and how the larger cosmos interacts with the atom. So, too, does Bronfenbrenner see the world: from the very tiny microsystem (the atom), through a series of larger "universes," to form what we might term culture or society. Within each of these structures, actions and interactions flow both ways, and much of what drives human development is the result of situational and environmental factors.

For example, young children in the shantytowns of Rio de Janeiro often sell candy to locals and tourists as their primary means of support. These children are able, because of their environment, to perform rather sophisticated mathematical calculations in their heads — understanding weights and measures, profit and loss, and numerical relationships far beyond their years. Yaqui children in northern Mexico, however, have no use for this type of knowledge, but they do understand very complex weaving patterns that require exceptional dexterity and the ability to visualize multidimensionally. Thus, for Bronfenbrenner, it is the relationship between the external and internal environments that shapes not only what is important — the relevant skill set — for human development, but also the manner in which that which is important becomes "ecologically" part of the dominant culture (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

The Ecological Approach to Lifelong Learning

If we translate this into a lifelong learning situation, it becomes clear that the external environment — the stimuli, responses, and systems encountered — contributes to a more holistic approach to whatever material is needed. But this does not go far enough. Using Bronfenbrenner as our foundational theory, it is the mindset, the desire, and the variety of learning models encountered that make it possible to have a robust, lengthy learning experience. According to modern scholarship, pushing the individual's cognitive capacity — the brain's ability to "see" and visualize learning — actually improves with more stimulation and practice. In other words, as we learn more, we tend to learn better (Zull, 2002, pp. 139–140).

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is built around several nested layers, each of which shapes human development in distinct but interrelated ways. The microsystem is the smallest layer in the sense that it is closest to the individual and contains all the structures with which the child has regular contact. It includes the relationships and structures that the child uses to define their surroundings — family, school, and neighborhood. The interactions in this layer are primary modifiers but are continually shaped by the other layers.

The mesosystem is the relatively fluid way in which microsystems morph and interact with one another — the connections between events and organizations. The exosystem is the larger social system in which the child does not directly participate but which has a profound effect on the microsystems (through both positive and negative influences). The macrosystem, or the outermost layer of the child's environment, consists of laws, customs, values, and norms — all of which the child is expected to assimilate prior to becoming a full participant in that specific culture. Finally, the chronosystem, or time-based dimension, is relative to the child's experiences within the structure of "when" — the manner in which time affects culture and society, both historically and practically, through events and structures (Paquette and Ryan, 2008).

Using the ecological model, the impact of moving through learning cycles clearly changes based on one's position in the overall system. For instance, as individuals age — whether they are teachers, doctors, or parents — their worldview changes. With that change in worldview comes the realization that many of the facts they thought they knew, or that may have been imparted in their classrooms or to their patients, might need a degree of revision. The power of our ability as humans to evolve intellectually and emotionally, however, is related to our capacity to incorporate a changing worldview into the craft of learning and teaching (Schoenfeld, 2002).

Taking the ecological approach further, when explanations move from the external world (the outer realms of Bronfenbrenner's model) toward the inner world, students of all ages can construct and contrast alternative conceptual structures, knowing that some are true, some are false, and some are both, depending on the circumstances. Indeed, this ability to take holistic ideas and move "through" a paradigm constitutes a very successful way of engaging with lifelong learning. It also respects the learner's ability to form their own conclusions while continuing to develop rational, evidence-based learning skills (Chinn and Samarapungavan, 2001).

Bronfenbrenner's Nested Systems Explained

The central insight of Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory is that human development is not only nested and multidimensional, but also fundamentally tied to the time and place in which development occurs. A child born in 16th-century France might have a different developmental scale, rate, and cognitive cycle than a child born in Southern California in 1980. Each system contains roles, norms, rules, and actions that are interrelated and collectively shape development — with the final external dimension, the chronosystem (time, or Chronos), guiding them all. The interaction between systems and the external and internal links that constitute culture reflects the full scope of Bronfenbrenner's paradigm, and it remains a highly relevant framework for understanding how learning can and should be sustained across an entire lifetime.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Harvard University Press.

Chinn, C., & Samarapungavan, A. (2001). Distinguishing between understanding and belief. Theory into Practice, 40(4), 235–242.

Conclusion

"Urie Bronfenbrenner." (September 26, 2005). Cornell University News. Retrieved from http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Sept05/Bronfenbrenner.ssl.html

Zull, J. (2002). The Art of Changing the Brain. Stylus Publications.