Child Development Stages: Freud, Erikson, and Piaget

Introduction to Child Development Theory

Had I wanted to track my younger brother's development since his birth in 1985, I would not have had the theoretical tools to do so until the beginning of this century. Until the early 1900s, no one was systematically studying the changes that occurred in individuals from childhood to adulthood.

Today, psychologists and other social scientists recognize that children pass through similar behavioral, intellectual, and physical steps while growing up. By using these theoretical frameworks as a guide, it is possible to track the development of any child. It should always be remembered, however, that the time frames presented are averages, and some children may achieve various developmental milestones earlier or later than average while still falling within the normal range. This information is presented to help interested parties understand what to expect from a child at different ages.

The idea that specific development stages exist for both adults and children began with the foundational concepts of Austrian physician Sigmund Freud at the end of the 19th century, as he expanded upon his theory of psychoanalysis. In his psychoanalytic view, early experiences shape one's personality for a lifetime, and psychological problems in adulthood may have their origins in problematic childhood experiences (Murray, 1999).

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

According to Freud, child development consists of five psychosexual stages in which a particular body region is associated with sensual satisfaction. During the oral stage — from birth to age one — the mouth, tongue, and gums are the focus of sensual pleasure, and the baby develops an emotional attachment to anyone providing care, primarily through feeding. This occurred during my brother's first eight months, when he was most interested in activities such as sucking, biting, swallowing, and manipulating various parts of the mouth. Because he could not yet talk, he often entertained himself by making noises such as smacking.

During the anal stage, from ages two to three, children focus on pleasures associated with control and self-control, primarily with respect to defecation and toilet training. My brother was about three years old when he became potty trained, and around two and a half when he began to understand that "no" meant "no" and was able to stop certain behaviors.

In the phallic stage — from ages three to six — children derive satisfaction from genital stimulation. They also become interested in physical differences between the sexes and begin to identify with their same-sex parent. This started taking place when my brother was about three and a half. He began watching my father get dressed in the morning and tried to do the same. The latency phase — from age seven to puberty — is when sensual motives lessen and psychological focus is channeled into everyday activities, such as schoolwork. Finally, during the genital stage — from adolescence through adulthood — individuals develop mature sexual interests. My brother used to dislike girls when he was little, but something changed completely when he turned 14.

Erikson's Eight Stages of Social Development

Building on Freud's stages as a foundation, psychiatrist Erik Erikson identified eight stages of social development in 1956 (Murray, 1999). He observed these developmental patterns within the context of social structures and the child's efforts to become a member of a social group. These theories help developmental specialists anticipate some of the more challenging moments in a person's life.

In Stage 1 (Infancy, until age one), a child develops either trust or mistrust. My brother was well cared for by all family members, and as a result he has strong self-esteem and a trusting nature. In Stage 2 (Toddler, until age two), autonomy or self-doubt is established. The child learns to walk, talk, and use the toilet, and begins to develop self-control. My brother was encouraged to be independent and allowed to make mistakes, giving him the confidence to try new things. In Stage 3 (Early Childhood, until age six), initiative versus guilt is at the forefront. This is when my brother began to learn self-restraint, although he was quite stubborn — and still is. He does, however, listen to what my parents have to say and does not openly rebel. In Stage 4 (Elementary and Middle School, ages six to twelve), a child acquires a sense of competence and industry, or alternatively, inferiority. At school, children develop the skills needed to become productive members of society. If they learn effectively, they are less likely to develop a sense of inferiority.

In Stage 5 (Adolescence, ages twelve to eighteen), young people work to establish identity or manage role confusion. The youth begins to integrate earlier resolutions in order to develop a strong sense of self. My brother recently passed through this stage before going to college. It was at times difficult, as he did experience periods of identity uncertainty — but he is doing well now and beginning to focus on his future goals. In Stage 6 (Young Adulthood, ages nineteen to forty), the central task is forming intimate relationships. Those who are strong in this area feel comfortable making long-term commitments. In Stage 7 (Middle Adulthood, ages forty to sixty-five), the challenge is generativity — the ability to care for others — versus stagnation. Self-centered individuals have difficulty resolving this challenge. Finally, in Stage 8 (Late Adulthood, age sixty-five to death), the focus is integrity versus despair. If an individual is satisfied with what has been achieved in life, he or she will be able to accept, rather than fear, death.

References

Healy, Jane. Your Child's Growing Mind. Galena, IL: Main Street Books, 1994.

Murray, Thomas. Human Development Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.

Singer, Dorothy. A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks. New York: Plume, 1996.