Cultural Influences on Women's Roles: Korean and Japanese Students

Introduction and Research Framework

The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which women's roles are influenced by cultural background. Specifically, this study focuses on how Korean and Japanese cultural influences affect women's career aspirations and expectations for success in society. The study is divided into two sections. The first portion consists primarily of an observational review of the literature available regarding female roles in Japan and Korea, followed by a comparative analysis of the two cultures. The second half entails a field study of American students with Korean and Japanese cultural backgrounds, in an attempt to ascertain the extent to which female student roles are influenced by the models of their parents — the majority of whom were raised in Japan or Korea. Only first-generation students and families are examined, in order to obtain the most accurate information.

This study is conducted as a qualitative, observational study. The aim is to compare the differing roles of women in Japan and in Korea, and to assess the degree to which women are brought up differently, if at all. The hypothesis examined in the first portion of the study is as follows:

Hypothesis 1: Women take on traditional roles — such as those of wife and mother — in both Japan and Korea, despite trends in the West toward gender equality.

The central research question is whether educational and peer influences affect a woman's role and her aspirations to break out of that role in both Korea and Japan. This hypothesis is supported by the assumption that women growing up in Japan and Korea are subjected to a predominantly patriarchal system, whereby female roles have traditionally been subordinated to those of men. For purposes of this study, women's roles were examined via a literature review of studies conducted with college women in Korea and Japan, as well as studies related to career opportunities among women.

Literature Review: Women's Roles in Korea

In a study conducted by Song (2001), women's career aspirations were examined among 482 Korean college women in South Korea. The study showed that a formal education perpetuating gender inequality exists among many of the students; as a result, many students — based on educational experience alone — could not envision themselves in a career. Instead, inter-relational and external factors such as peer influences, as well as internal factors such as maternal influences and the mother-daughter relationship, were examined to uncover the extent to which a woman's self-perception and career orientation were shaped. The study acknowledged that a woman's choice of roles and career aspirations were tied to developmental history and the pressures of the social climate (Song, 2001).

In this particular study, women's roles varied considerably. Sholomskas and Axelrod (1986) point out that while some women in Korean culture seek to develop careers, others limit their working world to their families, while still others choose to work but not in a career capacity (p. 171). Korean culture has traditionally maintained that women's roles are subordinate to those of men, despite the fact that women have contributed greatly to the country's economic growth (Park, 1993). Women's participation in the labor force was just under 50% in the mid-1990s, though a majority of women were concentrated in low-level positions rather than career positions. Studies have generally supported the idea that Korean women's "inability to envision themselves in a career" can be attributed to several stereotypes and barriers, including discrimination by employers and a patriarchal ideology. Within Korea, the educational system has also been described as perpetuating gender inequalities — inequalities that appear to be exacerbated rather than reduced over time (Acker, 1984; Song, 2001). Stromquist (1991) argued that the Korean government perpetuates the subordinate role of women by deploying patriarchal ideologies that constrain women's educational and career options. Women generally are still considered an optimal choice for domestic labor within Korea.

Song's study (2001) acknowledged that schools in Korea typically still promote gender inequality as an integral part of education. Women are also influenced by the actions of their peers and mothers, who are themselves subjected to a patriarchal system in which a woman's role is traditionally defined and limited to positions of lesser status. Interestingly, Song (2001) suggests that the relationship mothers play in the lives of their daughters can nonetheless inspire female children to pursue a career.

Research conducted in both Korea and the United States supports the idea that female Korean students typically "envisage traditional roles with the influence of their peers" (Song, 2001; Cho, 1995), suggesting that schools still socialize students — to a certain extent — with a gender-oriented frame of reference regarding their future (Song, 2001).

In a study conducted by Hee and Soh (1993), the concept of gender relations among Korean women was explored with reference to Korean society as a whole being reflective of a "patriarchal democracy," rather than the Western democratic ideal of sexual equality. The study suggests that many women are still subjected to the Confucian ideal of yin/yang complementarity, under which a state of ordered inequality should exist such that male superiority acts to subordinate women's roles.

Despite the majority of research indicating ongoing gender inequality, evidence also supports the notion that women are making gains in Korea. Increasingly, women are beginning to pursue advanced educations and more ambitious careers, defying cultural norms, and more women are entering the labor force. Whereas nearly 99% of women in earlier decades filled traditional roles, a 1998 survey suggested that 12% of the female population was working in professional or managerial positions (Asia Org, 2003). There is still a long way to go before women realize true equality, but progress is being made.

Women's Roles in Japan

According to some observers, the role of women in Japan is similar to that in Korea, though slowly changing. According to Tomoko Inukai, a Japanese writer, unless "Japan's male-dominated society alters its treatment of women, marriage and family, it is headed for social calamity" (Wetzstein, 1999). A report published by Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi on gender equity showed that Japanese men essentially hold a monopoly on management positions. They also earn most of the income and participate very little in housework or traditionally "female" domestic roles. Japanese women, while generally well educated when they are young, are traditionally hired into low-paying and low-level jobs upon entering the workforce. They are pressured — and even expected — to quit and stay home after marriage, fulfilling the traditional role of wife and mother (Wetzstein, 1999).

One study found that for every 100 hours a woman spent cleaning the home, her Japanese husband spent only 4.1 hours. An additional study reported that 11% of Japanese children had little to no contact with their fathers — findings that further reinforce the entrenched notion of woman as housewife and primary caregiver in Japanese society (Wetzstein, 1999).

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that though traditional female roles dominate women's behavior in Japan and Korea, once students are subjected to more Westernized belief systems and exposed to a gender-equal educational environment, female students tend to take on more non-traditional roles — though they also incorporate certain traditional roles into their overall lives. Virtually none of the women who responded to the questionnaires indicated a desire to stay home after marriage, suggesting that women's roles shift significantly once exposure to non-traditional norms becomes available.

The preliminary portion of this study, however, demonstrates that in both Korea and Japan, the majority of women adopt traditional roles. Even those with career aspirations often do not realize them once they marry — a pattern that is especially pronounced among women in Japan. There is little evidence to suggest that female students are drawn back toward traditional roles once they move into a more Westernized environment. On the contrary, the familial and cultural pressures they experience at home center more on excelling academically and attaining an education that will facilitate a successful career.

References

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Asia Org. (2003). Women's contemporary roles in Korean society. Retrieved from http://www.askasia.org/Korea/r15.html

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