Darwin's Theory of Evolution, Natural Selection, and Creationism

Historical Context: Religion, Science, and the Question of Origins

The existence of life on Earth, the multitude of life forms, and the variations within each have intrigued humanity since time immemorial. Explanations tended to end where they were supposed to begin — at "The Origin." When religion took hold of the philosophical mindsets of the masses, it sought to explain origins through divinity and supernaturalism. The various scientific and logical traditions up to that point had tried and failed to capture the enormity of creation within natural laws, even in isolated parts. Different schools of thought attempted to accumulate and present proofs supporting their explanations, but found little resonance in their time. The firm grip of religion on the masses was the vehicle on which the Genesis narrative rode, and it was widely accepted that divine power had breathed life into each species and into man. This conviction became so thoroughly entrenched that all subsequent attempts to challenge any perception of the Genesis were immediately suppressed. Scientists and theorists grew apprehensive of putting forth their observations, however meaningful.

In the meantime, the scientific and industrial fields saw new laws and developments. Scientists and innovators brought about revolutionary changes in the way people traveled — with far faster modes of transport than horse-drawn carriages — provided artificial light at the flick of a switch, and enabled the crossing of seas in vast vessels. These were, however, parallel achievements and, at most, material ones. The most astounding creation — the living being — was left untouched, at least in the sense that those who did attempt to put forth theories in that direction faced the wrath of believers and were even punished for their temerity in questioning Genesis.

There were many fields — geological, chemical, physical, paleontological, and others — in which scientists found traces of life forms that must have existed but had since become extinct. The data, however, was imperfect, and scientists were unable to explain their theories based on these differentiated findings. The scientific field was further hampered by the discontinuous nature of the fossil record and the difficulty of explaining the branching and evolution of life forms. The thought process was constrained in two major ways: first, the changes took place very slowly over ages, and the fossil record was unable to capture all of it; second, it was difficult to explain these findings in a manner that neither challenged religious doctrine nor remained scientifically unacceptable.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection

It was against this backdrop that Darwin's theory of the origin of life — or rather, of evolution — finds its significance. Darwin drew parallels between human creations in the scientific and industrial world and the processes of nature (Darwin, 2002). He explained his theory of evolution through instances such as the transformation of factories, drastic changes in agriculture, and the new devices and implements then available to mankind. The second important factor in his theory was that the origin of life itself remained unknown. He offered no explanation on that count.

Darwin's theory gained very wide acceptance remarkably quickly. In a painstaking effort spanning almost nine years, he assembled the various available links — gained from fossils and from the variety of life forms he encountered during his voyage aboard HMS Beagle — showing the relationships between species as they were then known. He argued that changes are still taking place, but that we cannot comprehend them because we are limited by our knowledge and imagination regarding what might have happened or existed a million years ago. To illustrate this, he cited the example of landmass sculpted by flowing water or winds boring holes in mountains. Darwin was judicious in his pronouncements about the future: he conceded that the next stage of evolution is unknown, but maintained that climatic and changed living conditions have a bearing on ongoing transformations. He attached great significance to the law of natural selection. Parents produce many offspring, and those fit to survive pass on their capabilities and strengths to the next generation. This, he argued, explains the improvement and variation observed in life forms. Those unfit for survival do not find a place in the evolutionary record (Campbell, 2003).

To summarize, Darwin's theory revolves around the following sequence:

Progeny acquire, through reproduction, the subtle changes that continually occur in living beings. Survival of the fittest determines the continuation of a lineage, since parents produce many offspring but only a few survive. The strongest and fittest in turn survive environmental changes to propagate further change in the next generation. Thus, natural selection shapes each successive generation.

Darwin's only relevance to origin can perhaps be understood in his claim that there are only four or five original animal and plant life forms. The vast variation of species observed today represents transformations accumulated over ages, induced by natural selection and by the environmental conditions to which species were exposed. He called these adaptations to conditions (Campbell, 2003).

Conclusion

Darwin chose to sidestep the fundamental question about the origin of life in On the Origin of Species, at least in the strictly scientific sense. He sought the assistance of God in creating his first living being or beings. Thus, strictly speaking, Darwin provides less than fully satisfying answers — in purely scientific terms — to the most basic question of all. Others had already theorized about descent of origin and the pattern of evolution, but their presentation and juxtaposition with Genesis had been unconvincing. Darwin understood the mindset of the masses and labored to collect irrefutable proof that would be acceptable before presenting his theory. He also took into account the prevalent scientific and religious conventions and assumptions of his era.

It is fair to conclude that Darwin was successful in convincing a great many people of his theory of origin. The questions he raised about Genesis, and the ways in which he aligned with it on certain issues, resonated well with a large section of the population. The search for a complete understanding of how life was created continues to this day.

References

Campbell, J. A. (2003). Why was Darwin believed? Darwin's Origin and the problem of intellectual revolution. Configurations, 11, 203–237. doi:10.1353/con.2004.0016

Cosans, C. (2005). Was Darwin a creationist? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 48, 362–371. doi:10.1353/pbm.2005.0071

Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. London: John Murray. Rpt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964.

Darwin, C. (2002). The origin of species (2nd abridged ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.