Domestic Terror Groups in America: History and Movements

Introduction

Since September 11, 2001, considerable attention has been devoted to the study of terrorism, yet scholarly analysis of the subject has actually been active for several decades. With this increased focus, confusion has arisen regarding the very meaning of terrorism. In addition, there are competing theories regarding the causes and effects of terrorism, with contributions coming from economists, sociologists, psychologists, and political scientists. The study of terrorism is truly a multidisciplinary endeavor.

This paper provides a review of the debate regarding the definition of terrorism, presents historical examples to provide context, and introduces the primary theoretical and empirical contributions of major scholars in the field. There have arisen a number of terror group movements that have made it difficult for people to live in peace. (Rappa, 2009)

Defining Terrorism and Historical Context

The first usage of "terrorism" was in reference to the actions of a nation, not a subnational group. After the French Revolution in the late 18th century, the victors conducted a brutal campaign against nobles perceived to be enemies of the newly formed state. The series of mass executions by the postrevolutionary government was referred to as the Terror. This early conceptualization differs from the more modern use of terrorism, in which the perpetrators are not usually governments and are instead nonstate actors.

The usage of terrorism to refer to the violent actions of nonstate actors arose in response to the bombings and assassinations conducted by radical members of political movements such as anarchism and revolutionary socialism in the late 1800s and early 1900s. During the 20th century, the use of the term expanded immensely, often to include any type of political violence that the observer found disagreeable. This is where the confusion regarding terrorism's meaning arises.

Politicians and the media are quick to label any enemy violence as terrorism. When any act of violence one disagrees with constitutes terrorism, the concept loses its meaning because it has become highly contextual and subjective. This is why certain acts of violence are covered as terrorism by some media outlets and as legitimate resistance by others. The atmosphere of confusion is not helped by the fact that, between governments and researchers, there are more than 100 different working definitions of terrorism.

One scholar noted that terrorism seems to mean simply whatever the "bad" guys are doing. This issue is echoed in observations that the term had become more of a derogatory epithet than an adjective describing a unique phenomenon. (Velcic, 2004)

Rural Areas as Terror Targets

Terror movements can have considerable implications for the country. For example, drugs are often smuggled into the United States through rural border crossings, and some drugs, such as marijuana and methamphetamine, are manufactured in rural areas. Rural areas are also prime locations for terrorist attacks, including those from domestic antigovernment groups.

Many of the 103 nuclear plants in the United States are located in rural areas, and the successful sabotage of any one might release contamination affecting millions of people. Destroying just two dams on the Colorado River would damage the water supply for more than 25 million people. Food production has become increasingly concentrated in the United States, with just a few rural communities serving as home to meat processing plants that supply the rest of the nation. Contaminating meat in any of these plants would threaten the health of millions of Americans.

Although there is an image of rural crime as infrequent and of only minor seriousness, this perception is not universally accurate. Although on average crime is lower in rural areas, there are pockets of rural America with very high crime rates. For example, of the 30 counties with the highest homicide rates, most are rural, even though the homicide rate in the majority of rural counties is relatively low. Domestic violence and drug use appear to be equally common in rural and urban areas, but services to treat drug users and victims of domestic violence are less available in rural areas. (Walker, 2007)

The Weather Underground

Initially formed as a splinter group that believed peaceful protests were ineffective, the Weathermen were highly criticized for bringing about change in a negative manner through violent movements. People often labeled them a terrorist group, while others viewed their activities as defamation of the group as it was expanding. (Vaisman-Tzachor, 2006)

For the Weathermen, violent action was nothing short of necessary in a time of crisis—a last-ditch effort to grab the country's attention. And grab attention they did. In March 1970, just days after Bernardine Dohrn publicly announced a "declaration of war," an accidentally detonated bomb killed three Weathermen in the basement of a Manhattan townhouse. The group suddenly became the target of an FBI manhunt, and members were forced to go into hiding. The bomb had been intended to be set off at a dance at a local Army base.

The Weather Underground actions are considered reprehensible by many; the group engaged in violent acts while remaining silent about human rights violations embedded in U.S. policies. Some of the group's former members cite the murder of Black Panthers Fred Hampton and Mark Clark in a December 1969 Chicago police raid as a turning point. What many believed to be a government-sanctioned killing in an effort to wipe out militant groups such as the Panthers was, for the Weathermen, the final straw. (Pedahzur, 2003)

By the late 1960s, activist movements had also mobilized among Asian Americans, Native Americans, Chicanos and Puerto Ricans, as well as a second wave of activism among women, gay and lesbian individuals, and the disabled. (Schaffert, 2002)

Conclusion