Footbinding, Marco Polo, and East Asian History Overview

Key Terms and Figures in East Asian History

The Chinese practice of footbinding emerged during the tenth century and lasted for approximately one millennium, until 1911. Young girls were generally targeted, and their social class or background was largely irrelevant to the Chinese community. What is even more striking is that the girls' own relatives participated in the process without believing they were doing anything wrong. Footbinding typically began when girls were between the ages of 4 and 7. All toes except the big toe were bent against the bottom of the foot — the big toe was left unaltered so that the girls could maintain balance. The process was extremely painful, and it even ended in death for some girls. It was apparently meant to keep women close to their families or to make them more attractive (Miles).

Although his father and uncle visited Southeast Asia long before he did, Marco Polo distinguished himself through his adventurous spirit and his determination to learn as much as possible from his journeys. He was a pioneer in travel and inspired many individuals to leave their homes and explore the wider world. He was mainly responsible for providing Europeans with a detailed account of Asian cultures and the values commonly upheld across the Asian continent (Marco Polo and His Travels).

Although people often relate to it as a religion, Shinto is actually a complex set of laws and practices characteristic of people in Japan. Shinto can be seen as an amalgam of cultural values rather than a strictly religious ideology. The majority of people in Japan can be described as Shintoist in character, and they support concepts such as public shrines and the veneration of objects and individuals identified as kami — spirits or higher authorities that exert an essential influence on society as a whole (Varley 9).

Toyotomi Hideyoshi is widely considered the second great unifier in the history of Japan and the individual responsible for establishing a strict set of rules that allowed the community to function with minimal conflict. His negotiation skills and his experience in dealing with people assisted him in rising rapidly, eventually enabling him to become Japan's leader. His legacy is observable today in many cultural values promoted throughout the country. The Osaka Castle is probably one of the most important monuments demonstrating Hideyoshi's greatness and his ability to distinguish himself from many other Japanese leaders (Varley 142).

The Silla Dynasty is one of the most remarkable dynasties in history, having lasted from 57 B.C. to 935 A.D. Its early phases were very different from the phases for which it is most remembered. King Park Hyeokgeose founded the dynasty, but it was ruled for most of its existence — 992 years — by the Gyeongju Kim clan. The dynasty experienced rapid expansion when it absorbed the kingdoms of Paekche and Koguryo in 660 and 668, respectively, with significant assistance from China. The Chinese were subsequently expelled from the peninsula shortly after Korea's first indigenous unification process (Seth 65).

Hangul is Korea's native alphabet, created by the Joseon dynasty in 1443. Despite this early origin, Hangul did not become the primary writing system in Korea until the twentieth century, as the country's alphabet had been profoundly shaped by its long history with China. As Seth notes, "Hangul is the only major system of writing in use today that does not have its origins in the ancient Middle East, India, or China" (173). Hangul is one of the principal reasons why Koreans in contemporary society feel a strong sense of personal identity and national pride.

Korea Between China and Japan: Geopolitical and Cultural Pressures

Korea's geographical position has had a profound impact on its history, given that it was contested between China and Japan. The persistent tension between those two powers affected Korea in both positive and negative ways. The country's close proximity to both neighbors enabled frequent cross-cultural exchanges. Although many observers might assume that Japan and China represented only a threat to Korean wellbeing, Korea's relationship with the two countries was in fact "the main source of ideas about government, scholarship, and cultural sophistication for Koreans" (Seth 9).

Individuals living in what is now Korea interacted with people in China and Japan as early as 2000 B.C. "Pottery in Korea shows some similarity to that of Japan and the Yellow Sea region of China" (Seth 12). Even though Korea had relations with both China and Japan in the pre-Common Era period, experts have determined that it maintained a stronger relationship with communities in Northwest Asia (Seth 12).

Korea functioned as a bridge between China and Japan on many occasions and was even responsible for transmitting concepts such as Buddhism, literacy, and Chinese culture to the Japanese. One of the more striking aspects of Korean history is that its relationship with Japan was not especially close before the nineteenth century. Japan's complex military culture and the prevalence of piracy along its coasts posed a genuine threat to Korea's security. As Seth observes, "a central fact of Korean history, however, is that it has been surrounded by larger societies that were some of the most militarily formidable peoples in history" (9). Consequently, understanding Korea requires understanding its relationships with both Japan and China.

While the Korean language is generally considered distinct from other languages, many linguists have argued that it is related to Japanese. This does not necessarily imply strong Japanese cultural influence on Korea or that the two languages are very similar. It is more likely that both Japanese and Korean ancestors originated in Central Asia and migrated eastward, eventually exerting a powerful influence on East Asian societies (Seth 10).

Japanese Colonialism and Korea's Modern Transition

It was not until states and empires arose in North China that Koreans began to be seriously affected by their neighbors. Korea's proximity to the great Chinese civilization was essential in shaping its history from the country's earliest days (Lambert).

Korea shifted its focus toward Japan during the late nineteenth century, when King Gojong recognized that cooperating with his western neighbor was the only viable option, given Japan's far superior military power. Although Koreans rose against Japanese forces on several occasions, their capacity was limited, and these uprisings often resulted in Japan demanding larger tributes and compensation. Chinese influence over Korea effectively ended during the late nineteenth century and was replaced by Japanese dominance. Japan's defeat of China further deepened Koreans' sense of powerlessness in the face of Japanese expansion (Lambert).

As Koreans continued to rebel against their Japanese oppressors during the early twentieth century, Japan seized the opportunity to annex Korea and govern it as a colony from 1910 to 1945. All rebellions during these years were suppressed harshly, as the Japanese used extreme force to demonstrate their authority (Lambert).

Despite the immense suffering Korea endured under Japanese rule, the occupation brought some material benefits. The country's infrastructure improved considerably, with railroads, roads, and bridges constructed across the territory. Japan also built factories and modernized the country significantly during this period. On balance, however, Korea experienced far more harm than benefit from Japanese domination. The end of the Second World War and Japan's surrender to the Allied powers played a decisive role in liberating Koreans and finally giving them the opportunity to govern their own country after decades of foreign control (Lambert).