Egypt's Bankruptcy and British Occupation in the 19th Century

Introduction

Imperialism by European countries in the Middle East did not rely solely on colonization and occupation. Economic and political factors also contributed to the emergence of sectarianism in the eastern Mediterranean. For instance, the prosperity of the Christian community on the Mediterranean coast increased significantly during the 19th century as a result of the growing integration of the Ottoman Empire into the global economy. Since most Middle Eastern countries were affected by European imperialism, Egypt was no exception — British imperialism in the country had far-reaching effects. Egypt was involved in resisting British imperialism as far back as the 19th century (Gelvin 2011, 96).

Egypt's History and Ottoman Rule

Although Egypt held only the status of an Ottoman province following its conquest by Selim, it remained a country where the Mamelukes continued to exercise great power. Since the 16th century, Cairo had continued to exert control over the fertile Nile region, the Arabian pilgrimage routes, and the Red Sea. During the 17th century, under weaker sultans, the lack of strong rule from the imperial core allowed the Mameluke beys — officials within the Ottoman Empire — to become increasingly unruly ("History of Egypt," n.d.). This growing disorderliness contributed to significant tensions between the Ottoman governor in Cairo and the officials controlling their respective regions within the province.

This state of anarchy was further shaped by the arrival in 1798 of Napoleon, a European leader who sought to introduce administrative discipline. Napoleon declared that he had arrived as a friend of the Ottoman Turks in order to liberate their province from Mameluke tyranny. As Turkish engagement in European affairs was limited mainly to immediate neighbors, there had been a succession of wars with Russia and continual changes to the frontier with Austria in the Balkans. In 1798, the Ottoman Empire found itself inevitably entangled in Europe's great power conflicts when Napoleon attacked Egypt as an indirect means of damaging British imperial interests. While the Ottoman governor of Egypt and the disorderly Mameluke forces were ill-prepared to deal with the attack, the condition of Napoleon's army did much to level the odds.

Before the beginning of the 19th century, Egypt remained a seemingly unknown and mysterious place to most European countries. This relative obscurity was driven by several factors, including the religious divide between a predominantly Christian Europe and a Muslim Egypt. As a result of these differences, open communication was limited, particularly due to the bitterness produced by the Crusades and the wars that followed (Jones, 2013). The combination of religious affiliation and political distinctiveness had significant consequences: inhabitants of areas where various religious communities lived side by side easily interpreted acts of exploitation or indignity as attacks on their religious community (Gelvin 2011, 98). Furthermore, there were leaders — or aspiring leaders — within religious communities who were willing to exploit these tensions for their own political ends. One example of such religious conflict occurred across the eastern Mediterranean, where Muslims attacked Christians in response to the rising economic and political position of Christian communities.

Another reason for Egypt's relative obscurity was the loss of most knowledge concerning ancient Egyptian society prior to Greek settlement along the coast. As a result, the origins and purposes of ancient Egyptian monuments and institutions remained largely unknown, despite the fact that many observers had witnessed the temples, pyramids, and hieroglyphics firsthand.

The Rise of British Imperialism in Egypt

The rise of British imperialism in Egypt can be attributed to Britain's principal interest in the region: the stabilization of the area. In pursuit of this goal, Britain tended to support the Ottoman Empire against all opposition. This support was accompanied by efforts by British merchants to identify business opportunities in the Nile Valley and the Suez region (Jones, 2013). The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, stated that his country had no intention of possessing Egypt, provided that Egypt was well-managed and hospitable enough for British merchants to conduct their activities freely throughout the country.

Nonetheless, tensions between Egypt and Britain escalated in the 1870s following the decision by the Egyptian nationalist movement to become active and to target Europeans, including Turks. These efforts were fueled by the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War. This growing tension became the major factor resulting in Britain's occupation of Egypt, which developed out of what had initially been presented as an intervention.

Conclusion

Egypt's bankruptcy and occupation can be attributed to a range of factors, most notably British imperialism in the 19th century. Additional contributing factors include the accumulation of large foreign loans, mismanagement of government revenue, and the country's inability to service its national debt. European creditors exploited these vulnerabilities to advance their own interests and justify the occupation of Egypt.