This paper examines Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, tracing its origins in — and departures from — Freudian psychology. It provides a biographical sketch of Erikson, outlines the general orientation of his theory, and describes each of the eight stages from infancy through late adulthood. The paper then evaluates how the theory has evolved, including criticisms from multicultural psychologists and feminist scholars such as Carol Gilligan, and surveys current research applications in areas such as addiction recovery and juvenile delinquency. The paper concludes that, while the theory requires ongoing revision, it remains a durable and useful framework in developmental and social science research.
Although not as famous as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson was no less influential in the development of twentieth-century psychology. Like Freud, Erikson viewed human beings as developing through a series of "stages," but he broke with Freud in his emphasis on social development rather than sexual development. Erikson was the first major theorist to question Freud's emphasis on the Oedipus Complex and the Electra Complex as the respective drivers of a boy's or a girl's development. He conceived of what he called eight "psychosocial stages" — conflicts rooted not solely in the relationship between parent and child, but between the child and the larger community. The conflicts inherent to each stage were based upon social dynamics of which sexuality was only one factor.
The reason for this different orientation may lie in the fact that Erikson's background was quite different from Freud's: he was not trained as a doctor and had instead studied art and languages. He took only two classes in chemistry before dropping out of medical school, and was far more drawn to the humanities' potential to reveal aspects of the human psyche. At first, he said, "I could not see a place for my artistic inclinations in highly intellectual endeavors" — but when he came into contact with Anna Freud, she offered to take him on and train him as a child analyst, evidently seeing potential in him, thus beginning what would become his life's work (Friedman, 1999, p. 69). Erikson would eventually break with the Freudian tradition and played an important role in the development of humanistic (versus psychodynamic) psychology in America. After moving to America in the 1960s and 1970s, Erikson became a notable figure in popular culture, including a period advising John Lindsay as well as a professorship (Friedman, 1999, p. 27).
Children in Society by Erikson (1963) was one of the first Western theories of development to give due recognition to the impact of social interaction on human development. "Ego strengths develop from trusting relationships, according to Erikson" (Coughlan & Welsh-Breetzke, 2002, p. 222). Much like Freud, and later like Piaget, Erikson conceptualized human development as existing in a series of phases rather than as a continuous, linear path. Unlike Freud's framework of oral, anal, and genital stages, however, Erikson stressed that considerations beyond purely sexual factors were significant in shaping the human psyche. Erikson gave greater priority to influences such as peers upon the child's development of an autonomous identity.
The reason why Erikson's stages are called "psychosocial" in nature is because they allow for the influence of peers and other relatives to alter the developmental trajectory of the child through environmental factors outside the home. Like Freud, however, Erikson believed that development proceeded through a series of "conflicts" between opposing influences, and that if those conflicts were not resolved, the individual would continue to struggle with issues specific to each stage. Without resolution, the child would remain in a state of "arrested development" — just as Freud believed that certain persons were condemned to "oral" or "anal" personalities unless they resolved their underlying issues.
As one scholar notes, "for Erikson, identity is best characterized on a continuum, with healthy outcomes being represented on one end of the scale by identity achievement (commitment to a self-determined set of identified ideals, goals, and values), and dysfunctional outcomes represented on the opposite end by identity diffusion (the inability to develop and commit to a set of self-identified ideals)" (Cullitan, 2011, pp. 433–444).
Erikson's analysis of the human experience begins in infancy. "Erikson's first stage of human development, trust versus mistrust, addresses the individual's infantile experiences with the world other than himself. Is the world reliable, and are object relations consistent and available?" (Vogel-Scibilia et al., 2009, p. 407). A child who receives adequate emotional support — who is picked up when crying, attended to when hurt, and given approval for positive behavior — will learn that the world is a trustworthy place and that people are reliable and giving. A neglected child will learn the opposite and may grow into an adult incapable of trusting others. If this conflict is never resolved, the individual cannot learn to trust later in life. However, Erikson also saw some degree of mistrust as vitally necessary: a child who is excessively trusting and does not learn that some aspects of the world may be harmful has also not fully "resolved" this stage.
The second stage encompasses "autonomy versus shame and self-doubt" and "involves the struggle for personal control and separation from others" (Vogel-Scibilia et al., 2009, p. 408). This occurs during toddlerhood — roughly ages one to three — when the child begins to assert his or her willpower. Any parent of a toddler is familiar with this stage, given the toddler's fondness for the word "no." During this stage, the child must establish a positive sense of self and identity, separate from other objects in the world, and must begin to feel a sense of competency as he or she gains the ability to complete life tasks independently (such as feeding and using the toilet). Failure to attain a state of autonomy during this period results in shame, alienation, and insecurity. The child must also learn when it is acceptable to ask for help, developing an awareness of his or her own strengths and limitations.
From ages four to five, children experience "the crisis of initiative versus guilt, which is characterized by imitation of parents. Erikson (1959) suggested that the imitation results from children's high admiration for their parents. However, they also experience guilt due to their occasional immoral thoughts or behaviors" (Garrett, 1995, p. 210). During this stage, "individuals take their new-found skills and autonomy concept to pursue new tasks," although these tasks may also create sensations of guilt if the child feels he or she is in some way abandoning the parents (Vogel-Scibilia et al., 2009, p. 408).
Then, "from the age of six to puberty, children encounter the industry versus inferiority crisis. Industry is displayed by the children's need to obtain knowledge via books, films… Inferiority comes into existence when children undergo a sense of inadequacy due to certain failures," such as failing to make friends or feel competent in school (Garrett, 1995, p. 210). During this phase, the child's social circle begins to widen beyond parents and siblings to include peers. Peers play an extremely important role in this stage, shaping how the child feels he or she "measures up" to others. This is a critical difference between Freud and Erikson: Freud attributes far less significance to what he calls the latency period, but for Erikson this stage is critical in setting the tone for future relationships in adolescence.
According to Erikson, adolescence encompasses "the crisis of identity versus identity diffusion… the main theme in life is for the establishment of an identity. People in general, particularly adolescents, have the need to seek internal and external understanding and acceptance" (Garrett, 1995, p. 210). Some have viewed this phase as the most critical of all, coalescing the earlier stages such that "trust, autonomy, initiative, and industry all contribute to the adolescent's identity" (Garrett, 1995, p. 211). An adolescent during this stage may "try on" many different personas that seem radically different to friends and family, but ultimately some stable sense of self must emerge for this stage to be resolved successfully; otherwise, the adolescent will be emotionally adrift.
Although young adulthood is not always conceptualized as a crisis in the same manner as adolescence, Erikson views it as such: "the intimacy and solidarity versus isolation crisis occurs during young adulthood wherein efforts are made to establish a nurturing relationship with members of the opposite sex as well as those of the same sex. When the attempts are unsuccessful, there may be episodes of isolation which can lead to loneliness" (Garrett, 1995, p. 210). During this phase, finding a life partner is particularly important, and a failure to establish a healthy relational identity leads to feelings of inadequacy.
"In middle adulthood the generativity versus stagnation crisis is encountered… generativity refers to the need to provide guidance for future generations, an example of which would be the adult working to make society safer for the younger generation" (Garrett, 1995, p. 210). These are the child-rearing years, when the individual strives to be productive for his or her family and to establish healthy relationships with a spouse and children. This is also the phase in which many people experience a mid-life crisis — a frustrated sense that they are not doing something meaningful with their lives. "Failure to provide generativity leads to boredom and lack of psychological development" and a profound sense of frustration (Garrett, 1995, p. 210).
Finally, "the last crisis experienced is integrity versus despair, which occurs during late adulthood. Integrity is exhibited in the adult's sense of integration of the previous stages; additionally, the adult accepts life's limitations. Despair results from the fear that life goals will not be fulfilled before one's death," while the satisfaction of integrity comes from a belief that the individual has led a life that will leave a meaningful legacy for successive generations (Garrett, 1995, p. 210).
"Western bias, feminist critique, and social applications"
"Addiction recovery, delinquency, and qualitative studies"
Erikson's theories of development have undergone considerable revision in recent years, and that revision will likely continue, shaped by feminism and multicultural psychology. Yet for a theory of its age, it has proven remarkably durable in illuminating the concerns of various life stages. Provided it is not applied dogmatically, Erikson's framework can continue to serve as a useful tool in certain applications across the social sciences.
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