Human Development Theories and Lifespan Counseling Perspectives

Introduction to Human Development Theory

In presenting my own personal view on human development and aging over the lifespan, I have reviewed several key research theories pertaining to human development. My personal model is a hybrid of prominent sociological theorists. Because it is important to consider the theoretical underpinnings of human development, I will incorporate a review of scholarly research pertaining to theories of life stage development and psychosocial development, and then offer my own perspective on each theory.

Sigelman and Rider (2006, p. 2) define development as the entire set of "systematic changes and continuities" that occur in the individual from birth to death. These systematic changes and continuities occur in three broad domains: physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development (Sigelman and Rider, 2006). Physical development includes normative physical attributes during the growth and decline of the human body, including the proper functioning of all combined physiological systems, physical manifestations of aging, sensory-motor responses, and the collective physical accommodations that humans develop as a result of the aging process (Sigelman and Rider, 2006). Cognitive development includes the set of changes and adaptations that occur in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and the gamut of mental functioning (Sigelman and Rider, 2006). Psychosocial development, Sigelman and Rider (2006, p. 3) note, includes "interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills and relationships, and roles played in the family and in the larger society." With this working definition of human development, it is important to note that lifespan theorists do not all agree on either the ways in which people grow and develop or exactly why people develop the way that they do.

All developmental theories involve some element of progression from one stage to another. This progression, however, does not necessarily imply "change." Life stage development theorists differ on the nuances of each life stage but seem to agree that incremental progressions throughout the lifespan provide for unique and identifiable segments in human development. This is not to suggest that "progression" carries a sense of "better" or "improved."

Life span perspectives suggest that an individual's adult experiences should be contextualized, and that childhood and adolescence are integral components involving a myriad of experiences, thoughts, and feelings that must be considered in order to understand the adult. Dividing human development into two distinctly separate phases, the life-span perspective involves both an early phase (childhood and adolescence) and a later phase (young adulthood, middle age, and old age). "The early phase is characterized by rapid age-related increases in people's size and abilities. The later phase is defined by slow changes in size while abilities continue to develop in response to environmental adaptation" (Cavanaugh, 2005, p. 3). While these life changes are certainly evident, I do not believe that life is so rigid as to adhere to any marked delineation of stages.

Intellectual Adaptation Theory

Jean Piaget suggested that intellectual development occurs through participation in activities, and that the development of intelligence is a necessary consequence of the range of cognitive structures as well as the increasingly complex cognitive skills learned from "doing." Every person is therefore responsible for creating, interpreting, and incorporating the ways in which they make meaning in their lives. Cavanaugh (2005, p. 284) notes that "each individual is responsible for creating the ways in which that individual processes, organizes, and structures thoughts."

Having defined two separate processes involved in intellectual function, Piaget thought that "assimilation" involved "the use of currently available knowledge to make sense out of incoming information," and that "accommodation" involves changing one's thought to make it a better approximation of the world of experience (Cavanaugh, 2005, p. 285). The cognitive structures that each individual possesses, Piaget argued, are necessarily determined not only by the type of information we receive, but also by the ways in which our worldview influences our perceptions. Among the most discernible changes during human development, Piaget identified these cognitive structures — the intellectual functions that determine perception and attendant reactions. Piaget promulgated four stages, or structures, in the development of cognition: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Cavanaugh, 2005, p. 285).

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson believed that people develop in psychosocial stages; that human beings were primarily driven by social influences, and that individual motivation reflected a desire to connect with other people. Emphasizing the developmental changes that occur throughout the lifespan, Erikson postulated that eight stages of psychosocial development could be discerned in the individual. Each of these eight stages comprises a set of developmental tasks or orientations that every person must achieve — a crisis, a dichotomy to be resolved (Santrock et al., 2003). Erikson believed each psychosocial phase involved an opportunity to achieve some potentially beneficial attribute, rather than representing a strict bifurcation between catastrophe and success (Santrock et al., 2003). The successful resolution of each of Erikson's stages suggests greater happiness in the individual and an increased potential for healthy development.

Erikson's Eight Formative Stages

Erikson argued that the basic aspect of a healthy personality is a sense of trust toward oneself and others. The first stage in his theory involves trust versus mistrust — the conflict that an infant faces in developing trust in a world it knows little about. With trust come feelings of security and comfort (Cavanaugh, 2005). Anderson, Carter, and Lowe (2006) write that this trust-versus-mistrust stage involves the necessity of developing a feeling of trust in both others and the self.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt comprises the second stage and involves a child's understanding that actions are attributable to the self. This is the first stage of the child's psychosocial crisis. The child understands the fundamental premise of autonomy; a child is then able to recognize that they are not merely reactive beings but can act on the world intentionally. This autonomy is threatened, however, by a child's tendency to avoid responsibility for their actions and to retreat to the security of the first stage (Cavanaugh, 2005). There is a fine line between the child's assertive behaviors and the restriction of those behaviors, which can leave the child less prepared for succeeding formative stages. Anderson, Carter, and Lowe (2006) note that placing too few limits on a child's assertive behaviors may result in an inability to internalize the capacity for self-care, while overly restrictive efforts may contribute to an inability to experience autonomy.

Initiative versus guilt is the conflict of the third stage and comprises the second psychosocial crisis for the child. The child is able to discover who he or she is once they understand that they can influence the world around them and that they are an integral part of it. It is during this stage that the child is able to dream and imagine the possibilities surrounding them in the world (Cavanaugh, 2005). Erikson (1968, p. 122) wrote that, in the child's mind, there is the idea that "I am what I imagine I will be." Should the child develop a greater level of initiative than shame, the child will be able to initiate social behaviors and transactions (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006).

The fourth stage is marked by children's increasing interest in interacting with peers, their need for acceptance, and their need to develop competencies (Cavanaugh, 2005). The child's interaction with community systems — such as schools and churches — as well as informal organizations such as the surrounding neighborhood and peer groups, comprises this industry versus inferiority stage (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006). This stage involves the child's desire to accomplish tasks through hard work. The child's failure to develop self-perceived competencies can result in feelings of inferiority (Cavanaugh, 2005).

The struggle in adolescence is choosing from among a multitude of possible selves the one identity we will become. Identity confusion results when we are torn over those possibilities. Erikson posited the primary psychosocial task of adolescence as achieving an optimal balance between identity achievement and role confusion (Kroger, 2000). Erikson (1968, p. 127) wrote that the successful child in this stage would claim "I am what I can learn to make work."

When an individual fails to achieve the industry goal, the identity diffusion that can result is referred to by Erikson as "negative identity." This occurs because having a negative identity is more desirable than having no identity at all (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006). Erikson (1968, p. 174) writes that the negative identity is "perversely based on all those identifications and roles which, at critical stages of development, had been presented as most undesirable or dangerous but the most real." In this manner, the social systems concept of a feedback loop is established. The individual recognizes their feelings of conflict as legitimate, internal feelings and, simultaneously, receives messages from external sources — such as the larger social unit — as to what that social unit suggests the individual is.

Anderson, Carter, and Lowe (2006) write that, during the industry versus inferiority stage, the child learns the technology of the surrounding culture; the institutionalized ways of achieving an understanding of such technology are supported and supplied by the culture so that the culture can propagate. In American society, the school is an institution charged with conveying such cultural technology to the child, as are churches and peer groups. The school is unique in that it is an institution that exists to ensure each member of the social unit participates in the organized and institutionalized culture (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006).

In America, Acuna (1972) writes, the educational system socializes each student into adopting the majority culture's ways and customs, sometimes at the expense of eradicating minority groups' values, cultures, and languages. This means of social control, occurring during the formative industry versus inferiority stage of Erikson's identity formation theory, can negatively and profoundly impact the child, creating a sense of worthlessness and confusion over one's "correct" identity. Should the child fail to succeed within the institution of school, a stigma attaches and the child may again fail to achieve a greater ratio of industry than inferiority, creating a series of negative and consequential failures. Anderson, Carter, and Lowe (2006) note that a heightened sense of inferiority can result from lacking resources from previous stage crises, unreasonable or confusing expectations by adults and peers, or excessively high standards used to assess mastery of skills.

Cavanaugh (2005) writes that during young adulthood the major developmental task — achieving intimacy versus isolation — involves establishing an intimate relationship with another person. Erikson considers this the transitional growth crisis (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006). Erikson (1968) argues that intimacy means sharing all aspects of oneself without fearing the loss of identity; should intimacy fail to be achieved, isolation results. Intimacy can be developed by choosing a partner who is representative of the ideal drawn from all of the individual's past experiences. The primary task of the intimacy versus isolation struggle is to reciprocally engage with others sexually, occupationally, and socially. Love is the psychosocial strength that results from the successful resolution of this struggle (Cavanaugh, 2005), and thus represents a worthy goal and a sign of successful achievement across all preceding life stages.

With the advent of middle age, the focus shifts from intimacy to concern for the next generation. The struggle occurs between a sense of generativity — the feeling that people must maintain and perpetuate society — and a sense of stagnation, characterized by self-absorption. Generativity is seen in such things as parenthood, teaching, or providing goods and services for the benefit of society. If the challenge of generativity is accepted, the development of trust in the next generation is thereby enabled and the psychosocial strength of care is obtained (Cavanaugh, 2005).

As the culminating stage of all of Erikson's life stages, the integrity versus disgust and despair stage involves the crisis of aging. Anderson, Carter, and Lowe (2006) write that this stage involves conservation — a consolidation and protection of the ego integrity accrued across life, despite losses. The self is understood as the identity that remains consistent from one social context to another (Anderson, Carter, and Lowe, 2006).

The successful individual in this last life stage has the ability to accept their life experiences and personal histories, to appreciate the effects they have had upon the world through relationships, and, ultimately, to accept their own mortality. The unsuccessful individual in this stage suffers bitterness, despair, and remorse, as well as a refusal to accept the inevitable end that awaits. Evans (1967, p. 53) quoted Erikson as saying that, given long enough, individuals become once again infantile-like — "if we're lucky, and senile childishness, if we're not... only in old age can true wisdom develop in those who are thus 'gifted.'"

In old age, individuals must resolve the struggle between ego integrity and despair. This last stage begins with a growing awareness of the nearness of the end of life, but it is completed by only a small number of people (Erikson, 1982). The task is to examine and evaluate one's life and accomplishments in order to make sense of one's existence. This process often involves reminiscing with others while actively seeking reassurance that one has accomplished something meaningful. People who have progressed successfully through earlier stages of life tend to face old age enthusiastically and feel their life has been full. Those who feel a sense of meaninglessness do not look forward to old age and experience despair. The psychosocial strength achieved from a successful resolution of this struggle is wisdom.

Integrity is not the only issue facing older adults; Erikson points out that they have many opportunities for generativity as well. Older people often play an active role as grandparents, and many maintain part-time employment (Cavanaugh, 2005, p. 354). King et al. (2000) write that individuals who have not experienced themselves as valued and contributing members of a family or society in their later years can be expected to experience more conflict about being the object of caregiving, and are more likely to view themselves as a burden to younger generations. Erikson (1968, p. 141) writes that an individual in the last stage of life, facing death, would say: "I am what is left of me."

Conclusion

I believe that theorists who have developed stages or sequenced narratives to determine life course changes are instrumental in helping to formulate and incorporate a personal view on human development. My own personal view on human development and life course events is as personal to me as my own fingerprints; my experiences, my views, and my perceptions have made me the person I am today.

After reviewing the body of psychosocial theories on human development and lifespan processes, in conjunction with my own life experiences, I have arrived at a foundation from which I can acknowledge with candor that I do not have all the answers about what life is or what my life means in the context of the greater world. Nevertheless, I find that my own personal model of human development is an assimilation of several sociological theorists and researchers. The inclusion of these varied theoretical underpinnings has helped me develop not only my own view of human development and the aging process, but also an understanding of how counselors can better equip themselves to provide the highest level of service to their clients.

While we may not walk the same paths in life, experience the same events, or perceive our world in the same ways, we are destined to progress — hopefully to grow and learn — and eventually to pass the knowledge we acquire during life on to others. As such, I believe we are both learners and teachers, in need of competent support so that we ourselves can counsel others.