Food Safety From Farm to Table: Contamination and Prevention

Introduction: Causes and Stages of Food Contamination

The causes of foodborne illnesses are numerous and can arise at virtually any point along the food production chain. Common causes include inadequate hand washing at any stage — including by the end consumer — cross-contamination such as using the same cutting board for meat and cheese, improper storage temperatures, improper cooking temperatures (particularly regarding meat), contamination of food by animal waste during factory food production, and contamination of soil or water supplies from natural sources or industrial pollution.

Tracing the source of a food contamination problem requires an investigation of all stages of food production from farm to table. Contamination can occur at any of these stages, but the type and severity of contamination varies depending on when and how it occurs. Optimal food safety involves safe practices at each of the following levels: food sourcing, food production, food handling, and end-user consumption.

Food Sourcing: Environmental Toxins and Chemical Contaminants

Perhaps the least discussed contributor to contaminated food may also be its most potentially deadly: toxins and chemicals in the environment that affect food at its source, such as on a farm or ranch. Contaminated water from pesticide or factory runoff is one example of how a food supply can become compromised. The problem of environmental contamination is difficult to pinpoint because food from one farm is often distributed around the world, making it hard to trace the origin of contamination. More importantly, the types of toxins present in the environment are often far deadlier than the bacteria and viruses introduced through poor hygiene at the food-handling stage. It is therefore important to distinguish between food contaminated by heavy metals, pesticides, or radiation and food contaminated by bacteria and viruses.

As with many other public health issues, the poor tend to be most adversely affected by environmental toxins in their food supply. For example, people in rural regions of Ukraine "are resorting to milk and produce from land still contaminated by fallout from the world's worst nuclear accident three decades ago," even though those foods are proven to be unsafe ("People are Still Eating Food Contaminated by Chernobyl," 2016).

Because of the close connection between poverty and food safety at the source level, food safety can be viewed as an important political issue and a basic human right. Yet even in the United States, hazardous facilities — including waste treatment plants and factories of all types — are more likely to be located in low-income or minority communities that lack the social, economic, or political power to protest the siting of these facilities (Margai, 2013). Around the world, a similar pattern exists whereby poor people disproportionately live in areas with contaminated food or water supplies. Without any recourse, people in disenfranchised communities find themselves forced to consume contaminated food or risk malnutrition and starvation. Because contamination occurring at this level can cause inter-generational problems such as genetic mutations or cancers, food contamination is about more than avoiding a bout of food poisoning — it is about human rights and social justice. It is impossible to wash heavy metals or radiation from food, meaning that consumers who have no control over where their food comes from also have no control over its safety.

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA, 2015), arsenic, lead, and mercury are the three chemical elements most likely to be food contaminants. Mercury is most commonly found in fish because of industrial waste. Even airborne industrial waste accumulates in the atmosphere and eventually settles into local waters or the ocean, exposing all fish and sea creatures to mercury. Fish that are higher on the food chain — mainly larger species — tend to have higher mercury concentrations because they consume smaller fish that also contain mercury ("How Does Mercury Get Into Fish?" 2011). Women who consume mercury-containing fish may carry enough mercury in their bloodstream to impact the growth and development of their babies ("How Does Mercury Get Into Fish?" 2011). According to the FDA (2015), the fish with the highest mercury levels in American waters include tilefish from the Gulf of Mexico, shark, swordfish, and king mackerel. Consumers can protect themselves by limiting their consumption of these and other high-risk species.

Although lead poisoning is more likely to occur through inhalation of dust particles or drinking water from lead pipes, lead can also enter the food supply through packaged goods. The foods most at risk are those packaged with materials that contain lead. While the United States has phased out lead-based packaging, imported food products may still use such materials. According to the New York State Department of Health (n.d.), common culprits include certain canned goods, candy wrappers, food stored in lead-painted pottery, and chapulines.

Food can also be contaminated with arsenic. Long-term exposure to arsenic can cause a number of diseases, including cancer and heart disease (FDA, 2015). Arsenic occurs naturally in soil in small amounts, but the most dangerous sources — those that elevate its concentration in food — are mining, smelting, and certain pesticides (FDA, 2015). As with other toxic chemicals, arsenic has been banned from American-made pesticides but may still be present in pesticides used in other countries. If those foods are imported into the United States, American consumers will be exposed to the arsenic. The foods most likely to be contaminated include rice and other grains, which absorb elements from the soil over extended growing periods.

In addition to metal contamination, bacterial and viral infections can also occur at this earliest stage of food production. Beef cattle and other animals are sometimes raised in close proximity to one another, which can lead to the spread of disease or perpetual exposure to manure that makes its way onto animal hides. By the time these animals reach the slaughterhouse, they may already harbor bacteria and other contaminants.

Pesticides and herbicides are another well-known impediment to food safety. The popularity of organic food demonstrates that consumers are aware of the dangers of toxic chemicals in the food supply. However, even organic foods can still contain toxic chemicals due to factors beyond the farmer's control, such as water supply or naturally occurring minerals in the soil.

Food contamination at the source can lead to some of the most dangerous illnesses, which is why addressing concerns related to industrial waste is critical. At every other stage of food production, it is possible to prevent contamination. Unfortunately, consumers have little control over lead, arsenic, and mercury in their food because basic hygiene techniques cannot remove these chemicals. Even buying organic food cannot prevent all source-level problems, since avoiding pesticide use does not compensate for irrigating fields with contaminated water.

Factory Production and Processing Risks

After production on farms or ranches, food may next pass through a factory. At this stage, food safety is critical — particularly in the meat industry. Contamination can occur readily in meat processing plants due to fecal matter contamination and condensation resulting from the processing itself (Bartholomew, 2015). However, even vegetable processing plants can have contamination problems, making close scrutiny of all food production facilities an important component of food safety.

When food is produced on a small scale rather than in a factory, the same basic food safety rules apply. Bartholomew (2015) emphasizes the importance of regular sterilization of all surfaces and materials in meat processing plants — a standard that must also be met by small butchers and fishmongers. Even products that do not contain meat can present food safety risks due to improper cleaning, cross-contamination, or improper storage.

Just as consumers have little control over lead or arsenic contamination in their food supply, those who consume factory-produced goods have little control over factory conditions. Animal products carry the greatest risk for serious contamination because pathogens can be present inside the animal due to its diet. Cross-contamination may also occur during slaughterhouse processes, as animal hides may come into contact with meat (Bartholomew, 2015). Salmonella, listeria, and other bacteria that live on animals can be present in the food supply at this stage, making it essential for all food handlers to follow best practices for hand washing and equipment sterilization.

Conclusion: Global Solutions and Food Safety as a Human Right

This research shows that while food contamination can occur at any stage of food production from farm to table, the farther back the contamination is traced, the more dangerous its long-term effects. Similarly, the earlier the contamination occurs, the less likely the consumer is to experience acute or short-term symptoms. This means that food contamination occurring early in the food production chain — such as food grown in contaminated soil — is the least likely to be detected before it is too late. To remedy this situation, public health officials must regularly test soil and water for contaminants and routinely test foods grown in at-risk areas. It is also important to reduce reliance on pesticides and to impose stricter regulations on the distance between farms or ranches and industrial facilities. Because a large proportion of food contamination affects animals, a diet that is primarily plant-based can also help promote food safety.

Food safety is a global concern. While the United States and other wealthy, developed nations face lower risks than poor and developing countries, the large number of food poisoning cases shows that Americans still have much to learn about food safety. A significant portion of the problems affecting American consumers can be prevented through basic hygiene and food handling practices. Unfortunately, the most serious effects of food contamination in the United States — heavy metal and chemical contamination of the food supply, and unsafe conditions in meat processing plants — are those over which consumers have little or no control.

Global standards of food production can help promote food safety worldwide. Unfortunately, farmers, food processing workers, food handlers, and cooks in developing countries are sometimes as powerless over food safety concerns as consumers. Developing countries often lack sufficient legislation or infrastructure to promote food safety comprehensively and frequently lack regulations on pesticide use. Without strong labor organizations, people working in the food industry at any level may not have the political power to demand changes such as access to clean drinking and irrigation water.

There are solutions that can promote food safety worldwide, including a conscientious effort by small or rural communities to reduce reliance on pesticides through sustainable farming practices, and by raising awareness about basic food safety and hygiene — such as thoroughly cleaning surfaces after handling raw meat and regularly washing hands. Consumers can benefit from advocacy and outreach programs that teach these practices, as many bacterial and viral infections that cause acute food poisoning are preventable. Even genetically modified organisms, once viewed with suspicion, now appear capable of vastly improving food safety by helping reduce reliance on pesticides that contaminate the food and water supply. Food safety should be recognized as a basic human right, and a global movement to protect food security can help empower people everywhere.

References

Bartholomew, G. W. (2015). Hazard analysis of incidental condensation contamination in food manufacturing facilities. Food Safety, August/September 2015.

Caswell, J. A. (1991). Economics of food safety. Elsevier.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Food safety. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/

FDA. (2015). Foodborne illness and contaminants. Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/

"How Does Mercury Get Into Fish?" (2011, December 30). Scientific American.

Margai, F. (2013). Environmental health hazards and social justice. Routledge.

Minnesota Department of Health. (2013). Food contamination and foodborne illness prevention. Retrieved from http://www.health.state.mn.us/foodsafety/prevention.html

New York State Department of Health. (n.d.). Sources of lead. Retrieved from https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/lead/sources.htm#candy

"People are Still Eating Food Contaminated by Chernobyl." (2016). New York Post.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2016). Causes of food poisoning. Retrieved from http://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/index.html

United States National Library of Medicine. (2016). Preventing food poisoning. Retrieved from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007441.htm