Four Major Learning Theories and Their Classroom Applications

Introduction

Learning is a complex process by which an individual acquires and modifies their knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, and skills through study, instruction, or experience. Theories provide a framework for understanding how learning occurs and the factors that influence its effectiveness. Learning theories are complex and comprehensive principles that explain how individuals learn, develop, and progress (Rosser-Majors, 2017). They acknowledge that human beings learn differently and attempt to contextualize the learning process. Four of the most common learning theories are behaviorism, constructivism, cognitivism, and humanism. This paper analyzes the learning process as portrayed by these four theories, the ideologies within each theory, and evidence-based applications of learning theory to enhance learning.

Behaviorism Theory

Behaviorism theory emphasizes the role of external factors and stimuli in shaping an individual's behavior (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Behaviorists argue that all behavior is an association between an environmental stimulus and the individual's response to it. As such, learning takes place as a response to an external stimulus and is not influenced by cognitive thought processes (Rosser-Majors, 2017). From a behaviorist's perspective, the learner plays only a passive role as a responder to external stimuli and is not an active participant in the learning process. Behaviorism stresses the consequences of the learning process, and stimuli are manipulated until the correct response or consequence is demonstrated. Learning is said to have occurred when an individual displays a proper response following the presentation of a certain stimulus (Rosser-Majors, 2017).

Behaviorism theory incorporates several ideologies, including operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and associative learning. Classical conditioning is a process by which an individual pairs a naturally existing stimulus with one that was initially neutral to create an association, such that the neutral stimulus eventually triggers the involuntary response previously caused by the naturally existing stimulus (Rosser-Majors, 2017). For instance, one could develop a habit of heading to the refrigerator for a snack every time a commercial appears while watching a favorite television program. Continued pairing of commercial breaks with a snack eventually turns the commercial break — once a neutral stimulus — into a conditioned stimulus, such that the individual craves a snack whenever a commercial appears.

Conversely, operant conditioning introduces punishment or reinforcement into the stimulus-response associative relationship (Rosser-Majors, 2017). For instance, if a teacher punishes a student for failing to submit an assignment by not allowing them to go out during recess, the student develops an association between the behavior (failing to submit the assignment) and the associated consequence (missing recess). Consequently, the student would decrease the problematic behavior.

Cognitivist Theory

Like behaviorism, cognitivism recognizes that environmental conditions play a role in influencing learning. However, the emphasis placed on environmental stimuli as influencers of behavior differs between the two theories. Whereas behaviorists regard the environment as the primary influencer of learning, cognitivists stress the importance of mental processes. Cognitivism is based on the idea that while environmental factors influence an individual's knowledge-acquisition process, learning depends more on the way a learner attends to, rehearses, codes, stores, and retrieves information (Harasim, 2017). The learner is therefore an active rather than passive participant in the learning process (Harasim, 2017). Learning depends on their mental processes as well as their values, attitudes, and beliefs (Harasim, 2017).

One of the fundamental ideologies of cognitivist theory is Bloom's taxonomy. Bloom's taxonomy explains that learning occurs through a six-stage process, where each stage is characterized by a level of thought lower than that of the stage directly above it (Harasim, 2017). Higher levels of learning are associated with higher-order thought processes at the top of the taxonomy. The lowest stage is the remembering stage, at which an individual is able to recognize and recall knowledge from memory. At the understanding stage, the learner is able not only to retrieve knowledge but also to construct meaning through comparing, summarizing, and interpreting ideas (Harasim, 2017). The third stage, applying, involves retrieving knowledge, constructing meaning, and carrying out procedures through execution and implementation (Harasim, 2017). The fourth stage, analyzing, involves breaking down knowledge into constituent parts and identifying how different components relate to each other (Harasim, 2017). The fifth stage, evaluating, enables the learner to make judgments based on standards and criteria through critiquing and checking (Harasim, 2017). The final stage, creating, involves putting elements together into a functional or coherent whole (Harasim, 2017). The choice of learning strategy is influenced by an individual's position within the taxonomy (Harasim, 2017).

Also fundamental to cognitivist theory is schema theory, which postulates that learning is easier when an individual is able to compare new subject matter to existing knowledge (Harasim, 2017). Under schema theory, individuals store knowledge in schemas — information packets that inform how they perceive unfamiliar concepts. The schema for an event or object helps the individual recognize that object or another that resembles it (Harasim, 2017). Learning occurs when one is able to accurately relate an object or event to a schema. For instance, a learner who sees a horse for the first time stores the image in their schema. When they later encounter a donkey, they refer to their schema and initially relate it to a horse, but then learn that it is a different animal. Learning thus occurs through relating new information to existing schema.

Conclusion

Learning is a process by which an individual acquires new knowledge and skills through instruction, study, or experience. Several factors influence learning, including the external environment, individual experiences, mental ability, and the intended goal or goals. What is evident across the various theories, however, is that learning is an individualized process shaped by the specific needs that each learner seeks to address. In this regard, it is essential that instructors identify the learning needs of individual learners in order to select teaching strategies that effectively address those needs.