Gnosticism, Early Christianity, and the Heresy Debate

Introduction: Orthodoxy, Heresy, and the Limits of Early Christian Identity

Early Christian polemicists such as Clement of Alexandria, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, and Tertullian all attacked Gnosticism as "heresy," and until the twentieth century virtually nothing was known about it except through the distorted texts they had written. Their purpose was to construct the boundaries between what later became "orthodox" or "catholic" Christianity in opposition to Judaism, paganism, and various Christian "heresies." Until the fourth and fifth centuries, however, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire under "the guiding influence of the Christian emperors" like Constantine and Theodosius, Christian "orthodoxy" was still fluid and in dispute. Only because of the power of the Roman state did Christianity become a "monolithic unity" that had not existed before, redefining "manifold ancient religious practices into three mutually exclusive groups: Jews, Christians and pagans" (King 22).

Early Christian polemicists deliberately exaggerated the differences between these groups and minimized the similarities, although for the first three centuries of Christianity no commonly recognized hierarchy or Scriptural canon existed. For the early Christian apologists and polemicists, the "heretics" were not real Christians, even though "there was no predetermined orthodoxy that was simply there, waiting to be more carefully defined" (King 25). In the end, the "orthodox" Christians won the battle and their words were preserved — which was not the case with their opponents.

The Didache and Early Christian Practice

The Didache was essentially an instruction manual used in the early Christian churches of Asia Minor in the first and second centuries, although no complete copy of it was thought to have survived until a Greek manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in 1873. Although its theology falls well within the later "orthodox" Christian tradition, it was not included in the Biblical canon. It followed Jesus in incorporating much of the Jewish law and contained a list of prohibited acts such as murder, adultery, theft, corruption of boys, magic, divination, astrology, and coveting the goods of others. All of these could be found in many other Christian texts of the time, and the Didache describes them as the way of death (Milavec 5).

In addition, the Didache borrowed from the Sermon on the Mount, calling on Christians to be gentle, kind, patient, long-suffering, to share with the needy, give generously to charity, and to avoid anger, hatred, and lust. This was the way of eternal life (Milavec 11). All Christians were required to confess their failings before the entire church, although they were to be rebuked in a gentle manner (Milavec 15). Baptism would be by immersion in water in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, while communion would be taken with both bread and wine, giving thanks "for the life and knowledge which you revealed to us through your servant Jesus" (Milavec 23). In addition, Christians were required to say the Lord's Prayer three times a day, looking forward to the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. Finally, the Didache refers to the last days and the end of the world, which will be a time of war, violence, and lawlessness and the appearance of a "world-deceiver as a son of God" who would perform miracles and deceive the many. Those Christians who remained faithful to the end, however, would be saved when Christ returned (Milavec 39).

Christianity Between Judaism and Paganism

Early Christians struggled with defining their own identity in opposition to Judaism and paganism, and also against other Christians whose teachings were regarded as heretical. Like all people in the ancient world, they "located the truth of their beliefs and practices, and established their identity, by appeal to origin, essence and purity," and the connection to Judaism gave them an ancient and venerable theology (King 37). At the same time, they defined Judaism as having "suppressed truth now gone awry, and paganism with error" (King 38). Christianity did not define itself as a matter of individual choice, which hardly existed in the ancient world, but as part of a "tradition and way of life" (King 39).

Judaism provided Christians with a respected past, but they also had to decide how much of the Jewish law and Scriptures could be incorporated for their own purposes. Paul had argued that Israel now included all Gentiles from "the nations" who accepted Christ, and that they would no longer be required to follow Jewish laws and dietary practices. Matthew, meanwhile, declared Jesus to be the fulfillment of the law and the prophets (King 41).

Conclusion: Dualism, Orthodoxy, and the Boundaries of Early Christianity

In the first three centuries, Christianity began to separate from Judaism while also selectively incorporating the Jewish Scriptures and laws it regarded as most useful, as is evident from the Didache. It did not accept the Gnostic argument that the creator mentioned in Genesis was a lesser or evil being compared to the True God, although a constant tension between the material and spiritual worlds has always run through Christianity, as well as its understanding of Christ's nature. Although early Christians rejected the pagan Greco-Roman gods and the cults of the Roman god-emperors, Platonic or Gnostic dualism presented a far more difficult problem, and Christianity was always in danger of veering toward one extreme or the other.

These disputes continued until the church councils at Nicaea and Chalcedon finally defined Jesus as fully divine and fully human, but the possibilities for theological tension were virtually endless. Gnostic Christians also appear more prepared to reject the Jewish Scriptures and tradition than the "orthodox" or "catholic" variety, who regarded Judaism as having been superseded by the New Covenant. At the same time, orthodox Christians required the prestige of the ancient Jewish traditions and Scriptures, and therefore defined them as having been fulfilled in Jesus Christ.

Works Cited

King, Karen L. What Is Gnosticism? Harvard University Press, 2003.

Milavec, Aaron. The Didache: Text, Translation, Analysis, and Commentary. Liturgical Press, 2003.