Hernán Cortés and the Conquest of the Aztec Empire

Spain's Rise as a Colonial Power

With the discovery of the American continent and its riches, Europeans were determined to exploit the new land. Hernán Cortés, a restless Spaniard in search of glory, was among the first to shatter the fragile peace between Europeans and the peoples of the American continent. One of the earliest major clashes between the two worlds resulted from the conflict between the Aztecs and the Spanish conquistadors.

People have sought to acquire land and wealth since the earliest recorded ages. This drive helped trigger the process of globalization through the frequent interaction between nations over time. After the great conquests carried out by early empires, the world seemed to pause in its appetite for new territory. However, the situation began to change with the rise of Spain and Portugal as masters of the sea.

Christopher Columbus was among the first visionaries to embark on an expedition that, he believed, would reach the West Indies and bring him fame. Instead of finding Asia, Columbus arrived in the Americas in 1492, opening an age of conquest. Following this first European footstep on American soil, the Spanish became fascinated with exploring and conquering the New World, and in a short time expanded their power across large portions of the continent.

These expeditions were made possible in part because Spain had recently united its two kingdoms through the marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon. During Columbus's voyage, Spain was also dealing with a wave of anti-Jewish persecution aimed at expelling Jews from its borders. The series of Spanish conquests began with the capture of the kingdom of Granada from Emir Boabdil. After the deaths of both Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, King Charles I of the Habsburg Dynasty ascended to the Spanish throne.

The Spanish conquerors became notorious for their ruthlessness and their insatiable appetite for American treasure. They often brought friars with them, however, ostensibly to aid the indigenous inhabitants they deemed savage. The conquest of the new land began in earnest when Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar was sent from Hispaniola to seize the island of Cuba with around 300 men. The Cubans surrendered without resistance, yet the Spaniards demonstrated their brutality by massacring many innocent natives. Friar Bartolomé de las Casas witnessed the slaughter and subsequently dedicated himself to defending the Indians, whom he argued were full human beings deserving of protection.

Hernán Cortés: Early Life and Ambitions

Born in 1485 in Castile, Hernando Cortés Pizarro was his parents' only son. Despite showing talent in writing, he failed to find success in formal schooling and decided to become an explorer after hearing accounts of conquests in the New World. When he attempted to leave Spain as a soldier, an unfortunate accident left him immobile and caused him to miss his ship. Eventually, Cortés managed to board a vessel commanded by Alonso Quintero bound for the Americas. He arrived in Hispaniola determined to grow rich from gold, but found himself limited to owning only land and slaves.

Driven by ambition, Cortés joined the military and participated in several campaigns over the years, steadily building his reputation. Because of his role in the conquest of Cuba, he was rewarded with more land and slaves and was ultimately appointed mayor of Santiago, the Spanish capital of Cuba at the time. Friar Bartolomé de las Casas described Cortés as one of the cruelest men he had known, unmoved by the number of Indians dying in the extraction of gold from his mines.

The Aztec Empire: Society, Culture, and Politics

While the Spanish were expanding their reach into the Americas, the Aztec Empire — not far from Cuba — was flourishing. It did not take long before the Spanish became aware of the Aztecs, aided by the reconnaissance of Juan de Grijalva. The Aztec Empire stretched from the Valley of Mexico in central Mexico east to the Gulf of Mexico and south to Guatemala. Its capital city, Tenochtitlan, was believed to be the largest city in the world at that time. In warfare, the Aztecs sought to impose their customs and traditions upon conquered peoples in order to expand the empire's cultural reach.

The Aztecs were deeply religious and relied on their gods in times of hardship or scarcity. They developed a sophisticated calendar to determine the proper times for planting and harvesting crops. At its height, the Aztec Empire governed approximately 15 million people, all of whom were subjects of King Montezuma II, ruling from Tenochtitlan. The empire had been formed from numerous communities that shared a common cultural and historical heritage (Schmal).

The people of Tenochtitlan who ruled over the broader empire were believed to have migrated from a mythical northwestern homeland called Aztlan. Most likely, the Mexica — as the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan were known — were searching for territory that could sustain a thriving civilization. After settling at Tenochtitlan, the Mexica constructed an elaborate network of canals and buildings on the fertile land. Over time, they strengthened their power by training their warriors and using strategic intermarriage to keep authority within their group.

During the fifteenth century, the Mexica worked to bring all surrounding communities under their dominion and formed alliances capable of overpowering any neighboring nation. The Aztecs believed that their gods could only be appeased — and daily needs only met — through constant human sacrifice. Aztec culture was highly complex, and schools were established to teach children how to participate properly in their society.

By the early sixteenth century, the Aztec Empire was among the most powerful forces on the American continent. Despite its influence, uprisings were common within the empire, driven by communities dissatisfied with harsh rule. Several areas near the Valley of Mexico resisted Aztec domination. The most significant was the Tlaxcala, the principal enemy of the Aztec Empire. The Spaniards moved quickly to exploit this rivalry, offering to support the Tlaxcala in a campaign against the Aztecs.

Internal problems had also been growing since Montezuma II assumed leadership. As he took the throne, several districts within the empire began to protest against their rulers. The inhabitants of Tenochtitlan interpreted these protests as an ominous prophecy foretelling the empire's collapse.